Groups of factors affecting health. Chapter 2. Factors affecting the health of modern man. Influence of genetic factors

The study of public health is carried out on the basis of various criteria. However, criteria alone for studying public health are not enough. They must be used in conjunction with factors affecting health. These factors can be conditionally grouped into 4 groups:

• 1) biological factors - gender, age, constitution, heredity,
• 2) natural - climatic, heliogeophysical, anthropogenic pollution, etc.,
• 3) social and socio-economic - legislation on the protection of the health of citizens, working conditions, life, rest, nutrition, migration processes, the level of education, culture, etc.,
• 4) medical factors or organization of medical care.

All these 4 groups of factors affect both human health and the health of the entire population, and they are interrelated with each other. But the impact of these factors on health is not the same.

The leading (basic) value in the formation of health belongs to social factors. This is confirmed by differences in the level of public health depending on the degree of socio-economic development of the country. As practice shows, the higher the level of economic development of the country, the higher the indicators of public health and the health of individual citizens, and vice versa. An example of the leading influence of social conditions on health is the fall and crisis of the Russian economy.

As a result, the health of the population has fallen sharply, and the demographic situation is characterized by a crisis. Thus, we can talk about the social conditionality of health. This means that social conditions (factors) through the conditions and way of life, the state of the natural environment, the state of healthcare form individual, group, and public health. Kuchma V.R. Megapolis: some hygiene problems / V.R. Kuchma. - M.: Publisher RCZD RAMS. - 2006. - p. 280.

Labor and health

During life, 1/3 of the total time a person participates in labor activity. Therefore, it is important that under the influence of work there is no deterioration in the state of health. To this end:

• 1) improve or minimize adverse production factors;
• 2) improve equipment, machinery, etc.;
• 3) improve the organization of the workplace;
• 4) reduce the share of physical labor;
• 5) reduce neuropsychic stress.

The main unfavorable production factors are:

gas contamination; dust; noise; vibration; monotone; neuropsychic stress; uncomfortable working posture.

To prevent the disease and ensure high labor productivity, it is necessary to maintain the optimum temperature, humidity, air velocity in the working room, and eliminate drafts. Also, the psychological climate at the enterprise, the rhythm of the work of the enterprise have an important influence on the state of health of workers.

However, failure to implement these measures to improve working conditions can lead to the following social consequences:

• 1) general morbidity,
• 2) the occurrence of occupational diseases,
• 3) occurrence of injury
• 4) disability,
• 5) mortality.

To date, about 5 million workers are working in adverse production conditions, which is 17% of all workers. Of these, 3 million women work in harmful conditions, and 250,000 work in especially harmful ones.

It should be noted that in the current conditions of the employer there is an interest in improving working conditions, but it is poorly implemented.

At the same time, many more tasks need to be solved in order for labor to be a real factor of health, and not pathology.

Consciousness and health

Consciousness, which is inherent in man, unlike animals, prompts him to pay a certain attention to health. In this regard, health care for most people should be in the foreground. In fact, due to the low level of consciousness in most of the population, this has not yet been observed. The result of this is that the dominant part of the population does not follow the elements of a healthy lifestyle. As examples confirming the influence of consciousness on attitudes towards health, one can cite:

• - low level of consciousness among drinkers who literally destroy their health (offspring - gene pool);
• - persons who do not comply with the regimen and prescriptions of doctors;
• - untimely access to medical care.

Age and health

There is a certain relationship between age and the state of human health, which is characterized by the fact that with increasing age, health gradually fades away. But this dependence is not strictly linear, it has the form of a figurative curve. This is how one of the indicators of public health - mortality - changes. Along with mortality in old age, mortality also occurs in young age groups. The highest mortality rates are observed in those under 1 year of age and in the elderly over 60 years of age. After 1 year, the mortality rate decreases and reaches a minimum at the age of 10-14 years. For this group, the age-specific mortality rate is minimal (0.6%). In subsequent ages, mortality gradually increases and especially rapidly after 60 years.

It should be emphasized that health must be protected from a young age, because, firstly, most of the children are still healthy, and some have initial signs of illness that can be eliminated; secondly, childhood and adolescence has a number of anatomical and physiological features, psychophysical features, is characterized by the imperfection of many functions and increased sensitivity to adverse environmental factors. That is why it is from childhood that you need to teach your child to follow a healthy lifestyle and other health promotion activities. Moroz M.P. Express diagnostics of the functional state and human performance // Methodological guide - St. Petersburg. - 2005-s38.

Nutrition and longevity

When evaluating the role of nutrition in human longevity, the following should be considered:

• 1) the correlation of its role, like any environmental factor, with hereditary longevity factors, as well as the significant genetic heterogeneity of the human population;
• 2) the participation of nutrition in the formation of an adaptive background that determines the state of health;
• 3) the relative share of the contribution to longevity in comparison with other health factors;
• 4) assessment of nutrition as a factor involved in the adaptation of the body to the environment.

The nutrition of centenarians is characterized by a pronounced dairy and vegetable orientation, low consumption of salt, sugar, vegetable oil, meat, and fish. Also, a high content in the diet of legumes (corn, beans), sour-milk products, hot spices, a variety of vegetable sauces, spices.

The nutrition of the population with low life expectancy was characterized by low consumption of milk and dairy products, vegetables (except potatoes), and fruits. However, the consumption of lard, pork meat, vegetable oil was significantly higher, and in general, the diet was carbohydrate-fat oriented.

Culture and health

The level of culture of the population is directly related to its health. Culture in this case is understood broadly (i.e. culture in general) and medical culture - as part of a universal culture. Specifically, the impact of culture on health is that the lower the level of culture, the higher the likelihood of diseases, the lower other indicators of health. The following elements of culture are of direct and most important importance for health:

• food culture,
• · culture of residence, i.е. maintenance of housing in appropriate conditions,
• the culture of organizing leisure (recreation),
• Hygienic (medical) culture: observance of the rules of personal and public hygiene depends on the culture of a person (the cultural one observes them, and vice versa).

If these hygiene measures are observed, the indicator of the level of health will be higher.

Housing (household) conditions and health

The main part of the time (2/3 of the total time) a person spends outside production, i.e. at home, while being in housing and in nature. Therefore, the comfort and well-being of housing is of great importance for restoring working capacity after a hard day, for maintaining health at the proper level, for raising the cultural and educational level, etc.

At the same time, the housing problem in the Russian Federation is very acute. This is manifested both in a large shortage of housing and in its low level of amenities and comfort. The situation is aggravated by the general economic crisis of the country, as a result of which free public housing has ceased to exist, and construction at the expense of personal savings is extremely poorly developed due to their shortage.

Therefore, for these and other reasons, most of the population lives in poor housing conditions. In rural areas, problems with heating have not been solved everywhere. Poor quality of housing is considered by 21% of the population to be the main reason for the deterioration of their health. When asked what is needed to improve their health, 24% of the respondents answered: improvement of living conditions. The occurrence of diseases such as tuberculosis and bronchial asthma is associated with the low quality of housing. The low temperature of housing, dustiness, and gas pollution have a particularly adverse effect. Low mechanization of living conditions (domestic work) negatively affects health. As a result, citizens, and especially women, spend a large amount of time, energy and health on doing housework. There is less or no time left for rest, raising the educational level, physical education, and other elements of a healthy lifestyle. . Kuchma V.R. Guidelines on hygiene and health protection: for medical and pedagogical workers, educational institutions, medical institutions, sanitary and epidemiological service / Kuchma V.R. Serdyukovskaya G.N., Demin A.K. M.: Russian Association of Public Health, 2008. - 152 p.

Rest and health

Of course, in order to maintain and improve human health rest is needed. Rest is a state of rest or a kind of activity that relieves fatigue and contributes to the restoration of working capacity. The most important condition for a good rest is its logistics, which includes diverse categories. These include: improving living conditions, increasing the number of theaters, museums, exhibition halls, developing television and radio broadcasting, expanding the network of libraries, cultural centers, parks, health resorts, etc.

In the conditions of modern production, when the growth of automation and mechanization processes, on the one hand, leads to a decrease in motor activity, and on the other hand, to an increase in the share of mental labor or labor associated with neuropsychic stress, the effectiveness of passive rest is negligible.

Moreover, forms of passive rest often have an adverse effect on the body, primarily on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Consequently, the importance of outdoor activities is increasing. The effect of outdoor activities is manifested not only in relieving fatigue, but also in improving the functional state of the central nervous system, coordination of movements, cardiovascular, respiratory, and other systems, which undoubtedly improves physical development, improves health and reduces morbidity. Katsnelson B.A. On the methodology of studying the dependence of public health on the complex of hygienic and other factors / B.A. Katsnelson, E.V. Polzik, N.V. Nozhkina, etc. // Hygiene and sanitation. - 2005. - No. 2. - P.30-32.

WHO experts determined the approximate ratio of various factors for ensuring individual human health, highlighting the 4th derivatives as the main ones, which are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Factors shaping health

It has been established that the development of many somatic diseases is associated with the negative effect of environmental factors. These factors are called risk factors. Thus, hypercholesterolemia (an increase in blood cholesterol levels) increases the risk of developing coronary artery disease in people aged 35-64 years by 5.5 times, elevated blood pressure - by 6, smoking - by 6.5, a sedentary lifestyle - by 4.4 , excessive body weight - 3.4 times. When combined with several

For some risk factors, the probability of developing the disease increases (in this case, 11 times). Persons who do not have signs of diseases, but the listed risk factors are identified, formally belong to the group of healthy people, but they have the possibility of developing coronary artery disease in the next 5-10 years is very likely.

Climatogeographic features of the human habitat (hot or cold, dry or wet soils, temperature fluctuations, etc.) have always been the most important factor in shaping morbidity and mortality.

Mankind in its activities has also formed a complex of so-called anthropogenic risk factors, such as urbanization, environmental pollution, etc. Their action is associated with the spread of various diseases, for example, ischemic heart disease, bronchitis, emphysema, diseases of the esophagus, stomach, spontaneous abortions, congenital malformations, inflammatory diseases of the eyes, and others. Significant risk factors are smoking, alcohol, drugs, etc. Table 3 shows some groups of risk factors for human health.

Table 3. Risk factors for the onset of the disease

Combining numerous risk factors into qualitatively homogeneous groups made it possible to determine the relative importance of each group in the occurrence and development of pathology in the population (Table 4).

Table 4. Grouping of risk factors and their contribution to the formation of the level of public health (Lisitsyn Yu.P., 1987)

Of course, it should be emphasized once again that the influence of various factors on human health must be considered in a complex, taking into account the characteristics of the individual (age, gender, etc.), as well as the specifics of the specific situation in which the person is.

Question 4.Influence of natural and ecological factors on human health.

Initially, Homo Sapiens lived in the natural environment, like all consumers of the ecosystem, and was practically unprotected by the contribution of its limiting environmental factors. Primitive man was subject to the same factors of regulation and self-regulation of the ecosystem as the entire animal world, his life expectancy was short and the population density was very low. The main limiting factors were hyperdynamia and malnutrition. The leading cause of death was pathogenic(disease-causing) effects of a natural nature. Of particular importance among them were infectious diseases, characterized, as a rule, by natural focality. essence natural foci in the fact that pathogens, specific vectors and animal accumulators, the custodians of the pathogen, exist in given natural conditions (foci) regardless of whether a person lives here or not. A person can become infected from wild animals (the "reservoir" of pathogens), living in this area permanently or accidentally being here. Such animals usually include rodents, birds, insects, etc.

All these animals are part of the biocenosis of the ecosystem associated with a certain bioton. Hence, natural focal diseases are closely related to a certain territory, with one or another type of landscape, and therefore, with its climatic features, for example, they differ in seasonality of manifestation. E. P. Pavlovsky (1938), who first proposed the concept natural focus, attributed plague, tularemia, tick-borne encephalitis, some helminthiases, etc. to natural focal diseases. Studies have shown that in one focus may contain

huddle a few diseases.

Natural focal diseases were the main cause of death of people until the beginning of the 20th century. The most terrible of these diseases was the plague, the mortality from which many times exceeded the death of people in the endless wars of the Middle Ages and later.

Plague - acute infectious disease of humans and animals, refers to quarantine diseases. WHO

the wakener is a plague microbe in the form of an ovoid bipolar rod. Plague epidemics covered many countries of the world. In the VI century. BC e. more than 100 million people died in the Eastern Roman Empire in 50 years. No less devastating was the epidemic in the 14th century. From the 14th century the plague was repeatedly noted in Russia, including in Moscow. In the 19th century she "mowed down" people in Transbaikalia, Transcaucasia, in the Caspian Sea, and even at the beginning of the 20th century. was observed in the port cities of the Black Sea, including Odessa. In the XX century. large epidemics were recorded in India.

Diseases associated with the natural environment surrounding humans still exist, although they are constantly being fought. This is due, in particular, to the reasons purely ecological nature, for example resistance (the development of resistance to various factors of influence) of carriers of pathogens and the pathogens themselves. A typical example of these processes is the fight against malaria.

More attention is now being paid to integrated, environmentally sound malaria control methods "Living environment management". These include draining wetlands, reducing water salinity, etc. The following groups of methods are biological- the use of other organisms to reduce the danger of the mosquito - in 40 countries, at least 265 species of larvivorous fish are used for this, as well as microbes that cause disease and death of mosquitoes.

Plague and other infectious diseases (cholera, malaria, anthrax, tularemia, dysentery, diphtheria, scarlet fever, etc.) destroyed people of various ages, including reproductive ones. This led to a rather slow population growth - the first billion people on Earth appeared in 1860. But the discoveries of Pasteur and others at the end of the 19th century, which gave a powerful impetus to the development of preventive medicine in the 20th century. in the treatment of very serious diseases, a sharp improvement in sanitary and hygienic living conditions, culture and education of people, in general, led to a sharp decrease in the incidence of natural focal diseases, and some of them practically disappeared in the 20th century.

Natural and environmental factors affecting human health include geochemical And geophysical fields. anomalies these fields, i.e., areas (territories) on the surface of the Earth, where their quantitative characteristics differ from the natural background, can become a source of diseases of the biota and humans. Such a phenomenon is called geopathogenesis, and the areas (territories) where they are observed are geopathogenic zones. Geopathogenic zones can be compared with natural foci according to the signs of impact on biota and humans.

Geopathic zones associated with the geochemical field affect a person with toxic chemical elements contained in them, associated with a radioactive field - increased release of radon, with the presence of other radionuclides, i.e. the mechanism of pathogenesis in this case is quite clear - the exchange between the source and the object of exposure . Here, the forms of pathogenesis and measures to combat it, including preventive ones, are already well known.

Geopathogenesis, due to geophysical fields, is poorly understood, especially the mechanism of transmission of pathogenic effects on living organisms. Nevertheless, some facts are known, when the violation of the Ionic balance of the electrostatic field in the direction of an increase in the number of positive air ions was established in the Areas of geologically active zones, with a general decrease in air ionization, which led to a decrease in immunity in people: and as a result, to the appearance of oncological diseases.

In humans, the action of geophysical fields "is also associated with brain rhythms, vascular waves, changes in vegetative physiological parameters, mental functions, etc." In this regard, it should be noted that

elimination of disturbances in the electromagnetic field created by flares on the Sun, which can last for seconds, minutes and hours. It is this short duration of outbreaks, ahead of the time of the adaptation period, that does not allow a person, and possibly some representatives of the biota, to develop an adaptive "antidote" to such fluctuations. They cause diseases in people, for example, with a weakened vascular system: increased blood pressure, headaches, and in especially severe cases, up to a stroke or heart attack, etc.

Statistically confirmed significant exacerbation of vascular diseases in people with a drop in solar activity. The prevalence of such geopathology is also explained by the fact that a person is largely isolated in his life from these natural processes.

Question 5. Influence of socio-ecological factors on human health.

In order to fight against the action of natural factors regulating the ecosystem, man had to use natural resources, including irreplaceable ones, and create an artificial environment for his survival.

Built environment also requires adaptation to oneself, which occurs through illness. The main role in the occurrence of diseases in this case is played by the following factors: physical inactivity, overeating, information abundance, psycho-emotional stress. In this regard, there is a constant increase in the "diseases of the century": cardiovascular, oncological, allergic diseases, mental disorders and, finally, AIDS, etc.

natural environment now preserved only where it was not available to people for its transformation. An urbanized, or urban, environment is an artificial world created by man, which has no analogues in nature and can only exist with constant renewal.

Social environment is difficult to integrate with any human environment, and all the factors of each of the environments are "closely interconnected

among themselves and experience the objective and subjective aspects of the “quality of the living environment”.

This multiplicity of factors makes us more cautious in assessing the quality of a person's living environment in terms of his health. It is necessary to carefully approach the choice of objects and indicators that diagnose the environment. They may be short lived changes in the body, which can be used to judge different environments - home, production, transport - and long-lived in this particular urban environment - some adaptations of the acclimatization plan, etc. The influence of the urban environment is quite clearly emphasized by certain trends in the current state of health

person.

From a medical and biological point of view, the environmental factors of the urban environment have the greatest impact on the following trends: 1) the process of acceleration, 2) disruption of biorhythms, 3) allergization of the population, 4) an increase in cancer incidence and mortality, 5) an increase in the proportion of overweight people, 6) lag of physiological age from the calendar one, 7) “rejuvenation” of many forms of pathology, 8) abiological tendency in the organization of life, etc.

Acceleration- this is the acceleration of the development of individual organs or parts of the body in comparison with a certain biological norm. In our case, this is an increase in body size and a significant shift in time towards earlier puberty. Scientists believe that this is an evolutionary transition in the life of the species, caused by improving living conditions: good nutrition, which “removed” the limiting effect of food resources, which provoked selection processes that caused acceleration.

biological rhythms- the most important mechanism for regulating the functions of biological systems, formed, as a rule, under the influence of abiotic factors, can be violated in urban life. This primarily applies to circadian rhythms: a new environmental factor was the use of electric lighting, which extended daylight hours. Desynchronosis is superimposed on this, chaotization of all previous biorhythms occurs, and a transition occurs. to a new rhythmic stereotype, what causes diseases in humans and in all representatives of the biota of the city, in which the photoperiod is disturbed.

Allergization of the population- one of the main new features in the changed structure of the pathology of people in the urban environment. Allergy- hypersensitivity, or reactivity, of the body to a particular substance, the so-called allergen(simple and complex mineral and organic substances). Allergens are external - exoallergens, and internal - autoallergens, in relation to the body. Exoallergens can be infectious- pathogenic and non-disease-causing microbes, viruses, etc., and non-infectious- house dust, animal hair, plant pollen, medicines and other chemicals -

gasoline, chloramine, etc., a. also meat, vegetables, fruits, berries, milk, etc. Autoallergens are pieces of tissues of damaged organs (heart, liver), as well as tissues damaged by burns, radiation exposure, frostbite, etc.

The cause of allergic diseases (bronchial asthma, urticaria, drug allergies, rheumatism, lupus erythematosus, etc.) is a violation of the human immune system, which, as a result of evolution, was in balance with the natural environment. The urban environment is characterized by a sharp change in the dominant factors and

the emergence of completely new substances - pollutants, the pressure of which the human immune system has not experienced before. Therefore, an allergy can occur without much resistance from the body and it is difficult to expect that it will become resistant to it at all.

Cancer incidence And mortality- one of the most indicative medical trends of trouble in a given city or, for example, in a countryside contaminated with radiation (Yablokov, 1989, etc.). These diseases are caused by tumors. Tumors("onkos" - Greek) - neoplasms, excessive pathological growths of tissues. They can be benign- sealing or spreading surrounding tissues, and malignant- sprouting into surrounding tissues and destroying them. Destroying blood vessels, they enter the bloodstream and spread throughout the body, forming the so-called metastases. Benign tumors do not form metastases.

The development of malignant tumors, i.e. cancer, can occur as a result of prolonged contact with certain products: lung cancer in uranium miners, skin cancer in chimney sweeps, etc. This disease is caused by certain substances called carcinogens.

Carcinogenic substances(translation from Greek - "giving birth to cancer"), or simply carcinogens,- chemical compounds that can cause malignant and benign neoplasms in the body when exposed to it. Several hundred are known. According to the nature of the action, they are divided into three groups: 1) local action; 2) organotropic, i.e. affecting certain organs; 3) multiple action causing tumors in various organs. Carcinogens include many cyclic hydrocarbons, nitrogen dyes, and alkalizing compounds. They are found in industrially polluted air, tobacco smoke, coal tar and soot. Many carcinogenic substances have a mutagenic effect on the body.

In addition to being carcinogenic, tumors also cause tumor viruses, as well as the action of some radiation - ultraviolet, x-ray, radioactive, etc.

In addition to humans and animals, tumors also affect plants. They can be caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, insects, exposure to low temperatures. They are formed on all parts and organs of plants. Cancer of the root system leads to their premature death.

In economically developed countries death from cancer is in second place. But not all cancers are necessarily found in the same area. Certain forms of cancer are known to be associated with certain conditions, for example, skin cancer is more common in hot countries, where there is an excess of ultraviolet radiation. But the incidence of cancer of a certain localization in a person can vary depending on changes in the conditions of his life. If a person has moved to an area where this form is rare, the risk of contracting this particular form of cancer is reduced, and, accordingly, vice versa.

Thus, the relationship between cancer and the environmental situation is clearly highlighted, i.e. environmental quality, including urban.

An ecological approach to this phenomenon suggests that the root cause of cancer in most cases is the processes and adaptations of metabolism to the effects of new, different from natural factors, including carcinogens. In general, cancer should be considered as a result imbalance of the body and, therefore, it can be caused, in principle, by any environmental factor or their complex, capable of bringing the body into an unbalanced state. For example, due to the excess upper threshold concentration air pollutants, drinking water, toxic chemical elements in the diet, etc., i.e. when the normal regulation of body functions becomes impossible.

Growth in the proportion of overweight people- also a phenomenon caused by the peculiarities of the urban environment. Overeating, physical inactivity, and so on, of course, take place here. But an excess of nutrition is necessary to create energy reserves in order to withstand a sharp imbalance in environmental influences. However, at the same time, there is an increase in the proportion of representatives of asthenic type: there is a blurring of the "golden mean" and two opposite adaptation strategies are outlined: the desire for fullness and weight loss (the trend is much weaker). But both of them entail a number of pathogenic consequences.

Birth, into the world of a large number of premature babies, and therefore, physically immature, - yet

cause of an extremely unfavorable state of the human environment. It is associated with a violation in the genetic apparatus and simply with an increase in adaptability to environmental changes. Physiological immaturity is the result of a sharp imbalance with the environment, which is transforming too rapidly and can have far-reaching consequences, including acceleration and other changes in human growth.

The current state of man, as a biological species, is also characterized by a number of medical and biological trends associated with changes in the urban environment: an increase in myopia and dental caries in

schoolchildren, an increase in the proportion of chronic diseases, the emergence of previously unknown diseases - derivatives of scientific and technological progress: radiation, aviation, automotive, medicinal, many occupational diseases, etc.

infectious diseases also not eradicated in the cities. The number of people affected by malaria, hepatitis and many other diseases is enormous. Many doctors believe that we should not talk about "victory", but only about temporary success in the fight against these diseases. This is explained by the fact that the history of combating them is too short, and the unpredictability of changes in the urban environment can negate these successes. For this reason, the “return” of infectious agents is recorded among viruses: and many viruses “break away” from their natural basis and move into a new stage capable of living in the human environment - they become the causative agents of influenza, a viral form of cancer and other diseases (perhaps this form is HIV virus), By their mechanism of action, these forms can be equated to natural focal, which also take place in the urban environment (tularemia, etc.).

In recent years, in Southeast Asia, people are dying from completely new epidemics - "SARS" in China, "bird flu" in Thailand. Filed by the Research Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology. Pasteur (Soviet Russia. 2004, No. 21.14 Feb.), “not only mutagenic viruses are to blame for this, but, in general, poor knowledge of microorganisms - in total, 1-3% of the total number have been studied. Researchers simply did not know before the microbes that caused the "new" infections. So, over the past 30 years, 6-8 infections have been eliminated, but over the same period, more than 30 new infectious diseases have appeared, including 1981-1989. - 15, including HIV infection, hepatitis E and C, which already account for millions of victims. In the following decades, 14 more new pathogens were discovered, among which it is enough to name the “prions” that are associated with the “mad cow disease” epidemic, and in humans they can cause a disease - encephalopathy (damage to the brain and central nervous system).

There are also known risk factors that are associated with the migration of pathogens to new territories (an outbreak in 1999 of "West Nile fever" in the United States, where it has never been recorded), and on the other hand, a very sharp increase in population migration around the world occurs mixing of human collectives, which always leads to mixing of infectious agents. Therefore, we can expect pathogens of infectious diseases in Russia from the most remote wilds of Africa, the swamps of Southeast Asia, etc. In addition, the migration of the population to the zone of natural focal infection, for example, tick-borne encephalitis, leads to a collective illness of new settlers, because the local population, for the most part, has immunity against this disease.

In urbanized areas, a person can himself pave the way for infection to his home - rats and mice settle in underground communications - carriers of infectious agents that easily penetrate directly into people's homes.

Purely social factors also have a great influence on the epidemic situation. Thus, poverty and malnutrition of the population are the most favorable conditions for an increase in the number of infectious diseases. In addition, in all social strata, the resistance of the human body to infections decreases as a result of the growth of stressful situations.

abiological trends, which are understood as such features of a person's lifestyle as physical inactivity, smoking, etc., are also the cause of many diseases - obesity, cancer, heart disease, etc. This series also includes sterilization environments - a frontal struggle with a viral-microbial environment, when, along with harmful forms, useful forms of a person's living environment are also destroyed. This is due to the fact that in medicine there is still a misunderstanding of the important role in the pathology of supraorganismal forms of the living, i.e. human population. Therefore, a big step forward is the concept of health developed by ecology as a state of the biosystem and its closest connection with the environment, while pathological phenomena are considered as adaptive processes caused by it.

As applied to a person, one cannot separate the biological from the perceived in the course of social adaptation. For the individual, the ethnic environment, the form of labor activity, and social and economic certainty are important - it's only a matter of the degree and time of influence. Unfortunately, an example of the negative impact of such

factors on human health and its population is the Russian Federation.

Health of people and features of the demographic situation in Russia. In Russia, over the past more than 10 years, since the beginning of the transition to the so-called "market economy", the demographic situation has become critical: the death rate began to exceed the birth rate in the country on average by 1.7 times, and in 2000 its excess reached two times . Now the population of Russia is decreasing annually by 0.7-0.8 million people. According to the forecast of the State Statistics Committee of Russia and the Center for Human Demography and Ecology of the Institute of Economic Forecasting of the Russian Academy of Sciences, by 2050

The population of Russia will decrease by 51 million people, or by 35.6% compared to 2000, and will amount to 94 million people.

In 1995, Russia had one of the lowest birth rates in the world - 9.2 babies per 1,000 people, while in 1987 it was 17.2 (in the US, 16 babies per 1,000 people). For simple reproduction of the population, it is necessary that the birth rate per family be 2.14 - 2.15, and in our country today it is 1.4, that is, there is a process of reducing the human population (the phenomenon of depopulation) in Russia.

Under economically favorable conditions, a regulated mechanism of depopulation will actually begin to operate, and in three generations humanity will be reduced to 1-1.5 billion without conflict. Apparently, if we take this point of view, we are dealing with an anomalous phenomenon of depopulation.

Indeed, in Russia, a mortality dynamics atypical for any country in the world has formed: an increase in the number of deaths occurs with a decrease in the population, while usually the opposite is true. There is a high probability that this trend will develop in the long term.

All this happened not as a result of the depletion of resources available to mankind in the richest country in the world, but as a result of a sharp change, almost to the opposite, in the vast majority of social factors in almost 90% of the population. This has led to the fact that 70% of the Russian population lives in a state of prolonged psycho-emotional and social stress, which depletes the adaptive and compensatory mechanisms that support health. In addition, one of the reasons for the increase in mortality is the deteriorating ecological state of the territory of Russia.

The life expectancy of both the male and female population has also been noticeably reduced. If in the early 70s. 20th century it was 2 years lower among the Russians than in the developed countries of Europe, North America, Australia and Japan, at present this difference is 8-10 years. Currently, in Russia, men live an average of 57-58 years, women 70-71 years - the last place in Europe.

“All this indicates that without changes in the political, socio-economic and environmental situation on the territory of Russia, a “terrible explosion” is possible in the foreseeable future, with a catastrophically decreasing population and a decrease in life expectancy.

5.1 General concepts of demography.

Demography- the science of the population, the patterns of population reproduction and their socio-economic conditionality. Under the population understand the totality of people united by a community of residence within a particular country or part of its territory (region, territory, district, city), as well as groups of countries around the world.

The tasks of demography include the study of the territorial distribution of the population, the analysis of trends and processes occurring among the population in connection with the socio-economic conditions of life.

The health status of the population is characterized by a number of statistical indicators, the most important of which are medical and demographic. Medical demography studies the impact of demographic processes on the health of the population, and vice versa. Its main sections are statistics and population dynamics.

Population statistics studies the size and composition of the population by sex, age, employment in various fields of activity. It provides information on the size of the child population both in the country as a whole and in individual regions.

Population dynamics studies migration (mechanical movement); natural movement, i.e. change in the population of a particular territory as a result of the interaction of the main demographic phenomena - fertility and mortality.

The natural movement of the population is characterized by general and special demographic indicators. General demographic indicators are indicators of fertility, mortality, natural increase, and average life expectancy. Special demographic indicators are indicators of general and marital fertility, age-specific fertility, age-related mortality, infant mortality, neonatal mortality, and perinatal mortality. These data are calculated based on the registration of each case of ro

births and deaths at civil registry offices (ZAGS). General demographic indicators are calculated per 1,000 people of the entire population, and special demographic indicators are also calculated per 1,000, but representatives of the relevant environment (for example, live births, women aged 15–49 years, children under 5 years old, etc.).

Demographic indicators are compared with generally accepted estimated levels, in dynamics, over time periods, with similar indicators in other territories, between individual population groups, etc.

5. 2 General indicators of natural population movement:

1. Indicator (coefficient) of fertility: the number of births per year per 1000 people. The average birth rate is 20-30 children per 1000 people.

2. Indicator (coefficient) of total mortality: the number of deaths per year per 1000 people. The average mortality rate is 13-16 deaths per 1000 people.

3. Rate of natural increase: This rate can be calculated as the difference between birth and death rates.

One of the most important indicators of the state of health and well-being of the nation is infant mortality . If mortality in old age is a consequence of the physiological process of aging, then the mortality of children, primarily under the age of one year (infant), is a pathological phenomenon. Therefore, infant mortality is an indicator of social ill-being, the ill-being of the population's health. The low infant mortality rate is 5-15 children per 1000 people. population, medium - 16-30, high - 30-60 or more.

maternal mortality is an integrating indicator of the health of women of reproductive age, a reflection of the social, economic, environmental processes taking place in society, and is defined as the ratio of the number of dead pregnant women, women in childbirth and puerperas to the number of living, multiplied by 100,000.

Although maternal mortality in the general structure of mortality of the population is only 0.031% of all deaths, this is the main indicator considered by WHO when assessing the standard of living and the quality of medical care for women. Comparison of maternal mortality rates in Russia and in European countries shows a significant difference: Russian indicators are several times higher than European ones.

Increasing the proportion of older people in the population is becoming an increasingly important factor in economics and social policy. According to the UN, in 1950 there were about 200 million people over the age of 60 in the world. By 1975 this number increased to 350 million, by 2010 - about 800 million. According to the UN forecast, the number of people over 60 years old by 2025 will exceed 1 billion 100 million.

A demographic situation similar to the one described above is also observed in Russia, where over the past 40 years the discrepancy between the growth of the total population and the number of older people has been constantly increasing. So, if from 1959 to 1997 the population of Russia increased by 25%, then the number of elderly people doubled. Existing trends will continue in the coming decades. In 2025, people aged 60 and over are expected to make up more than 25% of the total population.

This circumstance is becoming a serious economic factor due to the decline in the proportion of the working-age population and the increase in health care costs, a significant part of which falls on the elderly. At the same time, population aging in Russia is not due to economic growth, as is the case, for example, in Europe, but due to economic recession, and is a factor that worsens the economic situation.

In general, the health of the population is an indicator of social well-being, the normal economic functioning of society, and the most important prerequisite for the country's national security. And in this regard, the Russian Federation is currently experiencing an extremely unfavorable situation in the field of population reproduction, which can be characterized as a protracted demographic crisis leading to irreversible negative demographic, and hence economic and social consequences.

Natural population growth serves as the most general characteristic of population growth. One of the most unfavorable demographic phenomena is a negative natural increase, indicating a clear trouble in society. As a rule, such a demographic situation is typical for periods of war, socio-economic crises. In the entire history of Russia (excluding the period of wars), in 1992, for the first time, a negative natural increase was noted - 1.3p, which in 2000 amounted to - 6.7p. Negative natural growth indicates depopulation - a reduction in the population on a national scale.

According to the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation, as of July 1, 2002, the permanent population of the Russian Federation was 143.5 million people. and since the beginning of the year decreased by 444.1 thousand people, or

by 0.3% (in the first half of 2001 - by 458.4 thousand people, or by 0.3%).

Since 1992, the death rate in Russia has exceeded the birth rate, i.e. the number of deaths exceeds the number of births, resulting in a natural population decline. For 1992-2000 the natural decline in the country's population amounted to 6.8 million people. However, due to external migration in the amount of 3.3 million people. the total decline in the population of Russia during this period was only 3.5 million people.

The birth rate in the Russian Federation has significantly decreased over the past 10 years, the mass two-child family model in Russia has been replaced by a mass one-child family with an increase in the number of childless families. The number of births has fallen

from 1.8 million in 1991 to 1.3 million in 2000. Demographers explain the current decline in fertility by a decrease in the number of women in the most fertile age (the second “echo of the war”), a continuation of the global trend of demographic transition (a long-term decline in fertility and mortality, and growth in life expectancy) and the beginning of the second demographic transition in Russia.

The theory of the second demographic transition explains the decline in fertility in Western Europe in the second half of the 20th century. qualitative changes in the institution of family and marriage: the weakening of the institution of the family, an increase in the number of divorces. an increase in “trial”, unregistered marriages and out-of-wedlock births, a sexual and contraceptive revolution, the spread of non-traditional sexual orientation, a drop in the value of children in the system of life values, etc.

In Russia, the birth rate in 1989 was 14.6 per 1,000 inhabitants compared to 8.4 in 1999. The current birth rate is 2 times lower than that required for simple reproduction (the numerical replacement of generations of parents by their children) and is about 1.3 births per one woman during her lifetime with a coefficient of 2.15 necessary for simple reproduction.

The overall mortality per 1000 population in Russia in 1989 was 7.0, and until 1994 this figure was constantly increasing. The emerging ones were in 1995–1998. positive changes in the mortality of the population turned out to be short-lived. Already in 1998, the rate of reduction in mortality slowed down significantly, and the demographic situation in Russia worsened again - the mortality rate increased to 14.7.

Thus, the low birth rate and high mortality rate of the population bring the problem of health and life expectancy of the peoples of Russia into the rank of national ones, which determine the prospects for the preservation and development of the nation.

The most negative feature of the current demographic crisis in Russia is the unprecedentedly high mortality rate in working age (520,000 people per year). At the same time, the mortality of men of working age is 4 times higher than the mortality of women. And in the first place came the mortality of men from unnatural causes: accidents, poisoning, injuries, murders, suicides.

The level of this mortality is almost 2.5 times higher than the corresponding indicators in developed countries and 1.5 times in developing countries. And in combination with high mortality from cardiovascular diseases (4.5 times higher than similar indicators in the European Union), it determines the decrease in average life expectancy. The difference between the life expectancy of men and women exceeds 10 years.

One of the indicators used to assess public health is the indicator average life expectancy , which serves as a more objective criterion than the birth rate, death rate and natural increase. The indicator of average life expectancy should be understood as the hypothetical number of years that a generation of people born at the same time will have to live, provided that age-specific mortality rates remain unchanged. It is calculated at birth and at the age of 1, 15, 35, 65 years, disaggregated by sex. This indicator characterizes the viability of the population as a whole and is suitable for analyzing the indicator in dynamics and comparison across regions and countries. The value of this indicator not only characterizes the state of health of the population, but also gives an indirect assessment of the level of organization of medical care to the population in the country, the degree of medical literacy of the population, and the current socio-economic situation.

The highest indicators of life expectancy are observed in Japan, France and Sweden. In Russia, this indicator is not only extremely low - 62.2 years, but there is also a significant difference between men and women, which is 13 years - for men it was 59.1 years, for women - 72.2 years.

Dynamics (movement) of the population includes mechanical natural movement. Due to the movement of the population, the size of the population, its age-sex and national composition, the share of the employed population, etc., change.

Indicators of the mechanical movement of the population. The mechanical movement of the population - migration (from lat.

"movement") of certain groups of people from one area to another or outside the country. The mechanical movement of the population has a great influence on the sanitary condition of society. Due to the movement of large masses of people, the possibility of spreading infections is created.

The intensity of this type of movement is largely determined by the existing socio-economic conditions. Migration is divided into:

Irrevocable (resettlement with a permanent change of residence);

Temporary (resettlement for a sufficiently long, but limited period);

Seasonal (resettlement during certain periods of the year);

Pendulum (regular trips to the place of study or work outside their locality).

In addition, they distinguish between external (outside their own country) and internal (movement within the country) migration. External migration, in turn, is divided into:

Emigration (departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or a long term);

Immigration (entry of citizens from another country to this one).

5.3 The structure of causes of death.

In assessing the social, demographic and medical well-being of a particular territory, it is necessary to take into account not only birth rates, but also death rates. The interaction between these indicators, the change of one generation to another ensure the continuous reproduction of the population.

The indicator of general mortality in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. ranged from 40 to 50 p. By 1940, it decreased to 18 p, and in 1969 it reached its lowest value - 6.9 p. The mortality rate reached 15.7 percentage points, in 2000 -15.4 percentage points.

If we consider the level of mortality depending on sex, then the mortality rate for men in 1999 was 16.3 percentage points, among women it did not exceed 13.4 percentage points. With an increase in mortality, the natural population growth decreases. There is a significant aging of the Russian population.

The study of the structure of the causes of death gives the most complete picture of the state of health of the population, reflects the effectiveness of measures taken by health authorities and institutions and the state as a whole to improve the health of the population. During the XX century. in economically developed countries, there have been significant changes in the structure of the causes of death of the population. So, if at the beginning of the century infectious diseases were one of the leading causes of death, recently in the structure of causes of death the leading place is occupied by:

Diseases of the circulatory system - 55.4%;

Malignant neoplasms - 10.8%;

Respiratory diseases - 10.8%;

Diseases of the digestive system - 2.8%;

Infectious diseases - 1.7%;

Poisoning, injuries, external causes of death - 14.1%;

Other reasons - 4.4%.

The incidence of certain diseases. Morbidity is a set of diseases detected in the population. According to these data, the health of the population is judged, which largely depends on the activities of health workers and institutions. Knowledge of morbidity, its age and sex characteristics is necessary for planning medical care, the correct placement of personnel, and the preparation of a plan for preventive measures (medical examination, sanitary and educational work).

Morbidity rates reflect the real picture of the life of the population and make it possible to identify problematic situations for the development of specific measures to protect the health of the population and improve it on a nationwide scale.

There are three levels of detection of morbidity:

1. Newly detected incidence - all new cases of acute diseases, the first visits for chronic diseases during the year.

2. General morbidity - the totality of all diseases among the population that were first detected both in a given year and in previous years, but for which the patient applied again in a given year.

3. Accumulated morbidity - all cases of diseases detected both in the current year and in previous years, for which patients applied and did not apply to medical institutions.

The source of information on morbidity is the accounting and reporting medical documentation, which is filled in during the visits and medical examinations. The number of people seeking medical care in medical institutions is the most frequently used source of data on morbidity.

Distinguish: the actual incidence - a newly emerged disease in a given year; the prevalence of the disease - diseases that have reappeared in a given year. The incidence of the population shows the level, frequency, prevalence of all diseases (together taken and each separately) among the population as a whole and in its separate groups by age, sex, profession, etc.

Over the past 10 years in Russia, the level of general morbidity, according to the population's accessibility to health care institutions, tends to increase in almost all age groups and for most classes of diseases. At the same time, the main share is predominantly socially determined diseases.

The most significant of these is tuberculosis.

The second significant problem is the deterioration of the epidemiological situation in Russia regarding sexually transmitted diseases. In recent years, the epidemic situation of HIV infection has significantly worsened, especially in Moscow, the Moscow and Irkutsk regions.

The growth of HIV infection, as well as the incidence of viral hepatitis B and C, is largely due to the spread of drug addiction, a decrease in the general moral level, as well as insufficient effectiveness of information support and hygienic education of the population.

Chronic noncommunicable diseases account for the main burden of health care costs. The most significant non-communicable diseases include diseases of the circulatory system: they account for more than 14% of the total morbidity in the Russian Federation, about 12% of cases of temporary disability, about half of all cases of disability and 55% of mortality.

Undoubtedly, socio-economic conditions and lifestyle, the lack of an effective national program for the primary prevention of diseases of the circulatory system, as well as targeted investments aimed at improving the system of medical prevention, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of patients with cardiovascular pathology.

Since the beginning of the 90s of the XX century. more than 400 thousand cases of malignant neoplasms are registered annually in Russia. At the same time, there is an annual increase in the absolute number of patients with a first diagnosis.

Thus, the analysis of the incidence of the population makes it possible to comprehensively characterize the dynamics of its level and structure and show the influence of the socio-economic conditions prevailing in the country on their magnitude.

Question 6.The concept of population health and the main approaches to its assessment.

Coverage of issues related to health occurs at various levels: individual (the health of an individual - individual health), generic (health problems of the family), population (health of the population of a particular territory - population health).

To assess the health of the population, the following indicators are the most acceptable: medical and demographic, morbidity and morbidity, disability and disability of the population.

Medico-demographic, in turn, are divided into indicators of the natural movement of the population: fertility, mortality, natural population growth, average life expectancy, etc., and indicators of the mechanical movement of the population (population migration).

Births and deaths of the population are calculated on the basis of the registration of each birth and death in the departments of civil registration. The birth or death rate is the number of births or deaths per 1,000 people per year. If mortality in old age is a consequence of the physiological process of aging, then mortality in children is a pathological phenomenon. Therefore, infant mortality is an indicator of social ill-being, the ill-being of the population's health.

Natural population growth is the difference between births and deaths per 1,000 people. Currently, in Europe, there is a decrease in natural population growth due to a decrease in the birth rate.

The average life expectancy is the number of years that a given generation of those born will have to live on average, assuming that during their life the mortality rate will be the same as in the year of their birth. It is calculated using special statistical methods. Currently, 65–75 years of age and more are considered high, 50–65 years of age are considered medium, and up to 50 years of age are considered low.

Indicators of the mechanical movement of the population reflect the movement of certain groups of people from one area to another or outside the country. Unfortunately, recently, due to socio-economic instability in our country, migration processes have become spontaneous and have become more and more widespread.

strange.

Morbidity rates are of paramount importance in studying the state of health of the population. Morbidity is studied on the basis of an analysis of medical documentation: sick leave certificates, patient cards, statistical coupons, death certificates, etc. The study of morbidity also includes a quantitative (morbidity rate), qualitative (morbidity structure) and individual (multiplicity of diseases transferred per year) assessment .

Distinguish: the actual incidence - a newly emerged disease in a given year; morbidity - the prevalence of a disease that reappeared in a given year or passed from the previous to the current

The incidence of the population shows the level, frequency, prevalence of all diseases taken together and each separately among the population as a whole and its individual groups by age, sex, profession, etc. The incidence rates are determined by the corresponding figure per 1,000, 10,000 or 100,000 people of the population. The types of morbidity are as follows: general morbidity, morbidity with temporary disability, infectious morbidity, childhood morbidity, etc.

Disability is a health disorder with a persistent disorder of body functions, caused by diseases, congenital defects, the consequences of injuries leading to disability. They are identified by registering the data of medical and social expertise.

Question 7.The value of the formation, preservation and promotion of health in human life.

Health management involves the collection and comprehension of information, decision-making and its implementation. Health management is the management of the mechanisms of self-organization of a living system, which ensure its dynamic stability. The implementation of this process implies formation, preservation and strengthening the health of the individual.

Under formation health is understood as the creation of a harmoniously developed person. Caring for human health begins from the pre-embryonic period and is expressed in the prevention of gametopathies (disturbances in the structure and functions of germ cells) and the general improvement of future parents. It is obvious that the earliest possible start of health formation is the most effective. We must also remember that a person is constantly changing throughout life, especially during critical periods of life (puberty, menopause, etc.). From the competent "tuning" of the body depends on its further functioning. The formation of health is one of the most urgent problems of our society, in the solution of which not only a doctor, a teacher, but also every individual should participate.

Preservation health includes adherence to the principles of a healthy lifestyle (HLS) and the return of lost health ( recovery) if its level has acquired a downward trend.

Recovery is the return of health to a safe level by activating its mechanisms. Recovery can be carried out at any initial level of health. It is important to improve the relationship of the organism with the environment by optimizing them. For example: assessment of the region of residence, its ecology, the possibilities of maintaining the health of a particular person in a given place; study of the ecology of the home, place of work, clothing, food, etc. with subsequent correction of negative aspects (noise, environmental pollution, etc.). It is also impossible to ignore the issues of harmonization of a person's inner world. The most important component in the practice of recovery is educational work and the formation of an active position in relation to one's health.

Under strengthening of health understand its multiplication due to training influences. Since the level of health naturally decreases with age, maintaining it in the same range requires additional activity. The most universal training effects are physical and hypoxic training, hardening. The influences that are used in this case are mainly natural (without medicines). These include - cleansing the body, healthy nutrition, hardening, motor and hypoxic training, psycho-unloading, massage, etc.

Question 8.A healthy lifestyle is a factor that strengthens human health, the main directions of the formation of a healthy lifestyle.

The essence of the concept " healthy lifestyle"can be interpreted as a typical set of forms and methods of everyday life of a person, uniting the norms, values, meanings of the activity regulated by them and its results, strengthening the adaptive capabilities of the body, contributing to the full, unlimited performance of its inherent functions. This emphasizes its inextricable connection with the general culture of human

loveka. Orientation to values ​​is a characteristic feature of a person's life activity, depending on how much they satisfy her material and spiritual needs. Objectivity as a property of value is contained in the subject-practical activity of the individual, her way of life.

In recent years, approaches to the formation of a healthy lifestyle have been determined three main directions: 1)philosophical and social, which defines a healthy lifestyle as an integral indicator of the culture and social policy of society, which reflects the level of state interest in the health of citizens; 2) biomedical, considering a healthy lifestyle as a hygienic behavior based on evidence-based sled

container-hygienic standards; 3) psychological and pedagogical the direction assigns the leading role to the formation of a person's value orientations for the preservation and strengthening of health, the priority is the educational moment.

The content of a healthy lifestyle for a certain group of people (schoolchildren, students, civil servants, etc.) reflects the result of the spread of an individual or group style of life, fixed in the form of samples up to the level of tradition. The main elements of a healthy lifestyle are: labor culture (educational, creative, physical, etc.) with elements of its scientific organization; organization of an individual expedient mode of physical activity; meaningful leisure, which has a developing impact on the personality, overcoming bad habits; culture of sexual behavior, interpersonal communication and behavior in a team, self-government and self-organization. All elements of a healthy lifestyle are projected onto a person, their life plans, goals, requests, and behavior. These components of a healthy lifestyle are interconnected and interdependent, forming its integral structure.

To determine the signs of the formation of a healthy image of an individual, I usually use the following generalized indicators: the presence of a system of knowledge and practical skills in healthy lifestyles; attitude towards him; orientation; satisfaction with his organization; regularity of activities aimed at its implementation; the degree of manifestation of healthy lifestyle in the main types of life; the degree of readiness for its observance and propaganda. A high level of healthy lifestyle formation is characterized by an optimal ratio of all the criteria of a healthy lifestyle, the regular inclusion of the main means of physical culture in life at least three times a week and the daily use of its forms such as morning exercises, hardening, hygiene, etc. The average level of healthy lifestyle is distinguished by irregular implementation of elements of a healthy lifestyle, and the means of physical culture are used only occasionally. A low level corresponds to an indifferent attitude to a healthy lifestyle, the practical absence or minimal use of its elements in life. And the extremely low level of formation of a healthy lifestyle can be viewed as a passive attitude towards it, a complete denial of the need and necessity of its presence in life.

Therefore, health-improving and hygienic education and upbringing, promotion of a healthy lifestyle, primarily among the younger generation, as a form of education and maintenance and preservation of health, should go not only from knowledge to behavior, but also through the activation of incentive mechanisms, including a number of other phenomena inherent in man.

1. Zhilov Yu.D., Kutsenko G.I. Fundamentals of biomedical knowledge. Moscow: Higher School, 2006

5. Tonkova-Yampolskaya R.V. Fundamentals of medical knowledge. 4th ed. finalized - M .: Education, 2008.

The external environment surrounding a person is formed by a variety of physical, chemical and biological factors that are present in the atmosphere, soil and water. All of them, forming the human habitat, ensure the vital activity of the latter.

But in some situations, when the impact of these factors on the human body is excessively enhanced or, conversely, weakened, they can have a negative effect on human health. The second option, according to which health deterioration can develop, is the influence of the factors listed above from the technosphere, when there is a violation of control over potentially hazardous industries and technologies.

Human activity takes place in the biosphere, which is part of the Earth's shell and has the necessary properties for the existence of a variety of living organisms. The biosphere consists of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The lithosphere is the upper part of the solid shell of the globe, formed by sedimentary and basalt rocks. The highest density of living organisms is recorded in the soil layer (average 15–50 cm).

The hydrosphere is the water shell of the globe (occupies more than 70% of its area), formed by the waters of the oceans.

The atmosphere is formed by the troposphere and part of the stratosphere and is a mixture of a large number of 1 "ases.

Thus, the boundaries of the biosphere are the bottom of the World Ocean and the so-called ozone layer located in the stratosphere, which is formed by reactive oxygen species, mainly ozone itself. Outside the biosphere, the simplest organisms can exist only in special forms, for example, in the form of spores, while the more highly developed ones die. Metabolism, the activity of physical, chemical and biochemical processes in the Earth's biosphere is regulated by the amount of solar radiation energy.

In structural and functional terms, the biosphere is formed by animate and inanimate nature. Both of these components are in continuous interaction, the laws of which are studied by the science of ecology. The subject of the latter is the physiology and behavior of individual organisms in the natural environment, fertility, mortality, migration, intraspecific and interspecific relationships, energy flows and cycles of substances.

One of the key concepts of ecology is the habitat as a set of environmental factors affecting the organism in its habitat.

Environmental factors are elements of the environment that have a direct impact on a living organism at any stage of its development. They can be divided into three groups: biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic.

Biotic factors – These are the influences on a living organism, emanating from living nature.

Abiotic factors are the result of influences on the living organism of the components of inanimate nature.

Anthropogenic factors – it is the impact on the environment of elements of various spheres of human activity.

Environmental factors affecting a person can have a positive or negative effect. To protect against the adverse effects of the external environment, man created the technosphere. Subsequently, its boundaries expanded, as humanity began to actively transform the environment.

Technosphere – this is a habitat that has arisen with the help of direct or indirect impact of people and technical means on the natural environment (biosphere) in order to best suit the socio-economic needs of man.

The current evolutionary stage of human development is characterized by the following features: population growth and density, urbanization, an increase in energy production and consumption, the development of vehicles and the intensification of agriculture. Under these conditions, human health is affected by physical, chemical and biological harmful factors: natural (natural) and anthropogenic (caused by human activity).

Chemically dangerous and harmful factors are most often toxic substances for technological processes, household chemicals, agricultural fertilizers, drugs (in violation of the instructions for use), alcohol and its surrogates.

It should be noted that any chemical substance can worsen health if the conditions for its safe use are violated: the concentration and route of administration into the body are changed, the duration of exposure is increased, etc. For example, sea salt water has a pronounced anti-inflammatory effect on human skin, muscles and joints, and when drinking it, damage to the neurons of the brain is observed.

Biologically dangerous and harmful factors are a variety of pathogenic microorganisms: viruses, bacteria, protozoa and others, as well as plants and animals. There are more than 10 thousand species of poisonous plants and 5 thousand species of poisonous animals.

Physical factors that impair health include magnetic and electromagnetic fields, temperature effects, infrasound and ultrasound, ionizing radiation, changes in barometric pressure, mechanical vibrations and effects.

Chemical, physical and biological harmful and dangerous factors can worsen the living conditions of a person (indirect effect), as well as have a pathogenic effect on him (direct effect).

The consequences of exposure to harmful and dangerous factors in the lithosphere are manifested in the form of waterlogging of the soil, the formation of ravines, sinkholes, etc. However, the greatest damage is done to the soil layer. Accordingly, its destruction has the most serious negative consequences.

At present, the main cause of soil destruction and changes in its fertility is anthropogenic activity. Soils around megacities, metallurgy, chemical and processing industries, thermal power plants are polluted for several tens of kilometers with salts of heavy metals, polycyclic hydrocarbons, toxic compounds of sulfur, lead, cobalt, nickel, and fluorine. In places where these compounds accumulate, technogenic deserts are formed.

Changes in the chemical composition of the soil have an extremely negative impact on human health. The presence in it of heavy metals and their salts, as well as polycyclic hydrogens, increases the risk of oncological diseases.

Due to the lack of iodine, the production of thyroid hormones decreases, and calcium deficiency disrupts the structure and function of the musculoskeletal system.

In the forests surrounding large cities and enterprises with toxic emissions, it is not recommended to pick mushrooms and berries and eat them, as toxic compounds can get into them from the soil, which then leads to severe poisoning or death. An important problem of the modern world, and Russia in particular, is the collection, storage and processing of garbage. Due to the lack of waste processing enterprises, organized and spontaneous garbage dumps are formed around megacities. For the population living nearby, they pose a danger in terms of the spread of infectious diseases through rodents and wild animals that live here, contamination of water sources with toxic substances and pathogenic flora, as well as the presence of persistent unpleasant odors.

Currently, a difficult situation has developed in the hydrosphere, which is one of the important reasons for the deterioration of public health. Despite the rather high content of water in the biosphere, the amount of water suitable for economic purposes is very small - about 2% of all water resources.

The composition of natural waters is assessed by physical, chemical and sanitary-hygienic indicators. Physical indicators are temperature, suspended solids content, color, smell and taste. The chemical composition of water is characterized by a set of parameters: ionic composition, hardness, alkalinity, oxidizability, acid-base index (pH), dry residue, total salt content, content of dissolved oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, active chlorine and free carbon dioxide.

The main cause of pollution of the hydrosphere is anthropogenic activity, namely the use of water for industrial purposes. As a result of the discharge of sewage and industrial waste into the sea and other water bodies, the chemical composition of the water changes, the oily components of the production of petroleum products cover the surface of the water, preventing oxygen from entering it and causing the death of fish and other aquatic life.

Huge damage to nature and human health is caused by disasters with large sea vessels carrying oil or oil products. Thus, the sinking of the tanker "Valdiz" off the coast of Alaska in 1989 killed more than 1 million birds, 95% of the total population of seals, 50 whales and billions of salmon and herring. Until now, carcinogenic components of hydrocarbons are found in marine animals, and among the local population there is a high risk of cancer. In addition, the area of ​​the crash site is still closed to fishing, which is an important social problem.

According to WHO, about 80% of all infectious diseases in the world are associated with the poor quality of drinking water. The main way for pathogenic flora to enter the water is the discharge of sewage into water bodies, including reservoirs, from residential buildings on their banks, river vessels, and washouts from the banks. A change in the chemical composition of water, in particular an increase in its hardness, can contribute to the development of urolithiasis, and with an increase in the fluorine content, fluorosis develops: the appearance of stains and erosion of the enamel on the teeth, and an increase in their fragility. The presence of heavy metals in water often leads to poisoning of people who have consumed the latter. At the same time, fatal cases were observed quite often.

The presence of an atmosphere is a prerequisite for the existence of life on Earth. It performs a protective function, absorbing and reflecting excess solar energy and some types of energy hazardous to human health, regulates the climate, as well as the intensity of metabolic processes in the biosphere.

Air pollution – this is the accumulation in it of gases, solid and liquid particles, heat, vibrations, radiation, which adversely affect humans, the bio- and technosphere. It can be the result of natural processes (emission of volcanic ash, dust that has risen from the surface after the collision of the Earth with any celestial body) and anthropogenic (emission of gaseous production waste and heat). The pollutants are the end products of fossil fuel combustion, heated gases, artificial light sources, including laser, electromagnetic fields, radioactive particles, biological objects.

Some types of air pollution significantly worsen the state of the bio- and technosphere, and also adversely affect human health. These include the greenhouse effect, ozone holes and acid rain. The greenhouse effect develops as a result of the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, an increase in its permeability to ultraviolet radiation and a delay in infrared radiation reflected from the Earth's surface, which together will lead to a stable increase in temperature on the planet. This can lead to natural disasters (melting of glaciers and rising sea levels), as well as to the development of epidemics of tropical diseases in the northern regions of the Earth. Acid rain and ozone holes contribute to an increase in infectious and oncological morbidity.

The second group of factors has a direct adverse effect on a person, directly affecting people at work, in transport and at home. The damaging effect is provided either by one pathogenic factor, or by a combination of them.

Harmful substances, in contact with the human body, cause functional and structural pathological changes in it, and sometimes - its death. The toxicity of harmful substances depends on the concentration, routes of introduction into the body, the characteristics of its distribution in various tissues, routes of excretion from the body and is manifested by damage to various physiological systems and tissues. Thus, the inhibition of the function of the central and peripheral nervous system occurs when organophosphorus compounds, poisons of certain types of snakes, and high doses of nicotine enter the body. A pronounced energy deficit (reduction or cessation of the formation of adenosine triphosphoric acid - ATP) and hypoxia (oxygen starvation) are observed in case of poisoning with hydrocyanic acid and its derivatives, alcohol and its surrogates, carbon monoxide (CO).

Poisoning is acute and chronic. Acute poisoning often occurs in the home or at the enterprise during accidents and in violation of safety regulations. Chronic poisoning occurs at enterprises with repeated ingestion of small doses of a harmful substance into the body of an employee and their gradual accumulation. Most often, toxic substances enter the body through the respiratory system (gases, steam, aerosols) or through the gastrointestinal tract.

Mechanical damaging factors affect people in the form of vibrations (vibration, noise, infrasound and ultrasound) or cause mechanical injury.

Vibration – These are small mechanical vibrations that occur in elastic bodies. It can be general (applies to the entire volume of the human body) and local (affecting the arms and legs). Vibration disease is an occupational disease. When exposed to local vibration, pains appear in the hands, a violation of sensitivity, a sharp pallor of the fingers is noted after they are cooled, blood circulation in the small vessels of the hands and feet is disturbed, the skin coarsens, the fingers are deformed, and the muscle strength in them decreases. Under the action of general vibration, increased irritability, insomnia, heart disorders, digestive and metabolic disorders are added to the clinical manifestations.

Noise – it is a collection of sounds of varying frequency and intensity, randomly changing over time. For a comfortable existence, a person needs a noise of 10-20 dB (the noise of foliage in the forest). The development of the technosphere has led to a significant increase in the level of noise, under the influence of which a person experiences fatigue and hearing loss. These phenomena disappear with the cessation of exposure. However, if hearing fatigue is repeated systematically, then hearing loss occurs - a persistent hearing loss that makes it difficult to perceive the speech of others under normal conditions. With the help of special diagnostic methods, having established a connection between hearing loss and a person’s professional activity, they speak of an occupational disease.

infrasound – these are waves with a frequency of less than 16 Hz. Its sources are jet engines. It can also be generated by wind and waves in the seas and oceans. Influencing a person, infrasound causes a disorder of mental processes in the form of negative emotions of unreasonable fear and deep depression. There are also disorders in the digestive tract and cardiovascular system.

Ultrasound – These are vibrations with a frequency of more than 16,000 Hz. Long-term systematic impact on a person leads to disorders in the nervous, cardiovascular and endocrine systems. Patients have prolonged weakness, a persistent decrease in blood pressure, persistent headaches, decreased attention, a decrease in the speed of thought processes and insomnia.

Mechanical injury is now very common. In production conditions, it occurs when a person and various objects fall, safety precautions are violated when working with devices and mechanisms, in case of accidents in power and heating networks. Mechanical injury can occur in the subway (when using the escalator), in car accidents, accidents in water and air transport.

There are also electromagnetic factors. The main sources of electromagnetic fields of radio frequencies are radio facilities, television and radar stations. Industrial frequency electromagnetic fields are created by high-voltage power lines. Household sources of electromagnetic influences are televisions, telephones, computers, microwave ovens. The fields under consideration have a thermal and biological effect on people. Overheating most often develops in the lens of the eye (in the form of clouding), the brain, stomach, gallbladder and kidneys. Biological consequences occur with prolonged electromagnetic exposure. They are manifested by headaches, increased fatigue, changes in the frequency and frequency of heart contractions (arrhythmias), lowering blood pressure, changes in blood properties, trophic disorders (fragility of nails, hair loss).

laser radiation widely used in modern medicine: in surgery, physiotherapy, ophthalmology, dermatology and neurology. In the event of a malfunction of laser equipment or a violation of safety regulations, various tissues and physiological systems of the human body are damaged, most often the cornea and lens of the eye, skin (burns). Internal organs are harmed by focused laser radiation.

Electricity – it is the orderly movement of electric charges. The causes of electric shock are safety violations, malfunctions of electrical appliances, damage to wire insulation and exposure to atmospheric discharges (lightning). The severity of electrical injury depends on the current strength, voltage, duration of exposure, tissue resistance at the point of contact, environmental conditions (for example, humidity). The path of current from the point of entry to the point of exit is referred to as the "current loop".

The most dangerous is the passage of current through the heart and head. In this case, there is an immediate threat to the life of the victim. The places of current entry and exit are called "electric marks" or "current signs". This is a local skin burn. With an electrical injury, the victim feels a burning throbbing pain throughout the body, dizziness, nausea. Tremors and convulsions develop, consciousness is lost, cardiac activity and breathing are disturbed. Clinical death often occurs.

Radiation – it is a ray-like propagation of charged particles. The presence of background radiation is a prerequisite for the emergence and evolutionary development of life on Earth. Fluctuations in the radiation background affect the reproduction and growth of organisms. Natural radiation is a natural component of the human environment, formed by non-ionizing (light, radio waves) and ionizing radiation.

The term "radiation" applies only to ionizing radiation. Its quantitative characteristic is called a dose. The value of the normal radiation background is 10–16 μR/h. Under the influence of natural background radiation, a person is exposed to external and internal radiation. Sources of external exposure are cosmic radiation and natural radioactive substances located on the Earth (in rocks). Internal exposure occurs from the ingestion of radioactive substances into the body along with food, water and inhaled air.

The impact of artificial radiation on a person can occur when watching TV, working on computers, X-ray studies in medical institutions. Accidents at nuclear power plants play a special role. Due to the suddenness of the situation, people who find themselves in the disaster zone may develop acute radiation sickness. The degree of its severity depends on the total dose of radiation.

Depending on the degree and nature of the lesions, four forms of the disease are distinguished:

• 1) acute radiation sickness with a primary lesion of the hematopoietic organs (irradiation dose up to 1000 rad);
• 2) acute radiation sickness with a predominant lesion of the gastrointestinal tract (radiation dose 1000–5000 rad);
• 3) acute radiation sickness with a predominant lesion of the cardiovascular system (irradiation dose 5000–6000 rad);
• 4) acute radiation sickness with a predominant lesion of the nervous system (irradiation dose of more than 5000 rad).

The higher the radiation dose, the earlier the signs of the primary reaction appear: nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, general weakness, dry mouth, thirst, skin hypersensitivity. When exposed to large doses of radiation (5000–10,000 rad), cerebral edema quickly develops, consciousness is lost, necrosis of the skin and mucous membranes occurs, and the gastrointestinal tract and bone marrow are affected. Victims die from a rapidly progressing infection.

The existence of modern society is impossible without its impact on the environment and the expansion of the boundaries of the technosphere. This is often accompanied by a violation of the harmonious coexistence of nature and man. Therefore, such areas of activity as improving legislation in the field of environmental protection and methods of its control by government bodies and public organizations, the formation of an ecological culture among the population, as well as the development of environmentally friendly industries and the use of natural alternative energy carriers, acquire particular importance.

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Introduction

A person throughout his life is under the constant influence of a number of environmental factors - from environmental to social. In addition to individual biological characteristics, all of them directly affect its vital activity, health and, ultimately, life expectancy. Evidence shows that lifestyle has the biggest impact on health. Almost half of all cases of diseases depend on it. The second place in terms of impact on health is occupied by the state of the human environment (at least one third of diseases are determined by adverse environmental influences). Heredity causes about 20% of diseases.

A healthy organism constantly ensures the optimal functioning of all its systems in response to any changes in the environment. Preservation of optimal human life in interaction with the environment is determined by the fact that for his body there is a certain physiological limit of endurance in relation to any environmental factor, and beyond the limit this factor will inevitably have a depressing effect on human health. For example, as tests have shown, in urban conditions, factors affecting health are divided into five main groups: living environment, production factors, social, biological and individual lifestyle.

It is a matter of great concern that at present the Russian Federation in terms of mortality and average life expectancy steadily occupies one of the last places among industrialized countries.

1. Smoking

Smoking is the inhalation of the smoke of preparations, mainly of plant origin, smoldering in a stream of inhaled air, in order to saturate the body with the active substances contained in them by sublimation and subsequent absorption in the lungs and respiratory tract. As a rule, it is used for the use of smoking mixtures that have narcotic properties due to the rapid flow of blood saturated with psychoactive substances into the brain.

Studies have proven the harm of smoking. Tobacco smoke contains more than 30 toxic substances: Nicotine, Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Hydrocyanic acid, Ammonia, Resinous substances, Organic acids and others.

Statistics say: compared to non-smokers, long-term smokers are 13 times more likely to develop angina pectoris, 12 times more likely to have myocardial infarction, and 10 times more likely to get stomach ulcers. Smokers make up 96 - 100 % of all lung cancer patients. Every seventh long-term smoker suffers from obliterating endarteritis - a serious disease of the blood vessels.

Nicotine is a nerve poison. In experiments on animals and observations on humans, it has been established that nicotine in small doses excites nerve cells, promotes increased breathing and heart rate, heart rhythm disturbances, nausea and vomiting. In large doses, it inhibits and then paralyzes the activity of cells CNS, including vegetative. A disorder of the nervous system is manifested by a decrease in working capacity, trembling of the hands, and a weakening of memory.

Nicotine also affects the endocrine glands, in particular the adrenal glands, which at the same time release the hormone Adrenaline into the blood, which causes vasospasm, increased blood pressure and increased heart rate. Adversely affecting the sex glands, nicotine contributes to the development of sexual weakness in men - impotence.

Smoking is especially harmful to children and teenagers. The nervous and circulatory systems, which are not yet strong, react painfully to tobacco.

In addition to nicotine, other components of tobacco smoke also have a negative effect. When carbon monoxide enters the body, oxygen starvation develops, due to the fact that carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin more easily than oxygen and is delivered with blood to all human tissues and organs. Cancer in smokers occurs 20 times more often than in non-smokers. The longer a person smokes, the more likely he is to die from this serious disease. Statistical studies have shown that smokers often have cancerous tumors in other organs - the esophagus, stomach, larynx, kidneys. It is not uncommon for smokers to develop cancer of the lower lip due to the carcinogenic effect of the extract accumulating in the mouthpiece of the pipe.

Very often, smoking leads to the development of chronic bronchitis, accompanied by a persistent cough and bad breath. As a result of chronic inflammation, the bronchi expand, bronchiectasis is formed with severe consequences - pneumosclerosis, leading to circulatory failure. Often smokers experience pain in the heart. This is due to a spasm of the coronary vessels that feed the heart muscle with the development of angina pectoris (coronary heart failure). Myocardial infarction in smokers occurs 3 times more often than in non-smokers.

Smokers endanger not only themselves, but also those around them. In medicine, even the term "passive smoking" has appeared. In the body of non-smokers after staying in a smoky and unventilated room, a significant concentration of nicotine is determined.

For countries and territories of the world that provide relevant information to WHO, adult tobacco smoking prevalence ranges from 4% in Libya to 54% in Nauru. The top ten countries in which tobacco smoking is most widespread include, in addition to Nauru, Guinea, Namibia, and Kenya. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Mongolia, Yemen, Sao Tome and Principe, Turkey, Romania. Russia in this series of 153 countries ranks 33rd (37% of smokers among the adult population). However, despite the fact that, for example, the United States in this series is in 98th place (24%), cigarette consumption here on average per capita is higher than in many countries of the world with a higher prevalence of smoking among the adult population. If in the United States an average of about 6 cigarettes per capita is consumed daily (that is, including children and all non-smokers), then in Russia it is less than 5. And the highest level of per capita consumption of cigarettes is in Greece - almost 12 pieces per day per person.

2. Alcoholism

The thief of reason - this is how alcohol has been called since ancient times. People learned about the intoxicating properties of alcoholic beverages at least 8000 years before our era - with the advent of ceramic dishes, which made it possible to make alcoholic beverages from honey, fruit juices and wild grapes. Perhaps winemaking arose even before the beginning of cultivated agriculture. So, the famous traveler N.N. Miklukho-Maclay observed the Papuans of New Guinea, who still did not know how to make fire, but who already knew how to prepare intoxicating drinks. Pure alcohol began to be obtained in the 6th-7th centuries by the Arabs and they called it "al cogl", which means "intoxicating". The first bottle of vodka was made by the Arab Ragez in 860. The distillation of wine to obtain alcohol sharply aggravated drunkenness. It is possible that this was the reason for the ban on the use of alcoholic beverages by the founder of Islam (the Muslim religion) Muhammad (Mohammed, 570-632). This prohibition was subsequently included in the code of Muslim laws - the Koran (7th century). Since then, for 12 centuries, alcohol was not consumed in Muslim countries, and the apostates of this law (drunkards) were severely punished.

But even in Asian countries, where the consumption of wine was forbidden by religion (the Koran), the cult of wine still flourished and was sung in verse.

In the Middle Ages in Western Europe, they also learned how to obtain strong alcoholic beverages by sublimation of wine and other fermenting sugary liquids. According to legend, this operation was first performed by the Italian monk alchemist Valentius. After trying the newly obtained product and coming into a state of extreme intoxication. The alchemist declared that he had discovered a miraculous elixir that makes an old man young, tired, cheerful, yearning cheerful.

Since then, strong alcoholic beverages have quickly spread throughout the world, primarily due to the constantly growing industrial production of alcohol from cheap raw materials (potatoes, sugar production waste, etc.).

The spread of drunkenness in Rus' is connected with the policy of the ruling classes. An opinion was even created that drunkenness is supposedly an ancient tradition of the Russian people. At the same time, they referred to the words of the chronicle: "Fun in Rus' is to drink." But this is a slander against the Russian nation. Russian historian and ethnographer, expert on the customs and mores of the people, Professor N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) completely refuted this opinion. He proved that in ancient Rus' they drank very little. Only on selected holidays they brewed mead, mash or beer, the strength of which did not exceed 5-10 degrees. The cup was passed around in circles, and everyone drank a few sips from it. On weekdays, no alcoholic drinks were allowed, and drunkenness was considered the greatest shame and sin.

The problem of alcohol consumption is very relevant today. Now the consumption of alcoholic beverages in the world is characterized by huge numbers. The whole society suffers from this, but first of all, the younger generation is at risk: children, adolescents, youth, as well as the health of expectant mothers. After all, alcohol has a particularly active effect on the unformed body, gradually destroying it.

The harm of alcohol is obvious. It has been proven that when alcohol enters the body, it spreads through the blood to all organs and adversely affects them up to destruction.

With the systematic use of alcohol, a dangerous disease develops - alcoholism. Alcoholism is dangerous to human health, but it is curable, like many other diseases.

But the main problem is that most of the alcoholic products produced by non-state enterprises contain a large amount of toxic substances. Poor quality products often lead to poisoning and even death.

All this causes great damage to society, its cultural values.

The reasons for the first initiation to alcohol are varied. But their characteristic changes depending on age are traced.

Until the age of 11, the first acquaintance with alcohol occurs either by chance, or it is given “for appetite”, “treated” with wine, or the child himself tastes alcohol out of curiosity (a motive mainly inherent in boys). At an older age, traditional occasions become the motives for the first use of alcohol: “holiday”, “family celebration”, “guests”, etc. From the age of 14-15, such reasons appear as “it was inconvenient to be left behind the guys”, “friends persuaded”, “for the company”, “for courage”, etc. Boys are characterized by all these groups of motives for the first acquaintance with alcohol. For girls, the second, "traditional" group of motives is mainly typical. Usually it happens, so to speak, an “innocent” glass in honor of a birthday or other celebration.

The second group of alcohol consumption motives, which form drunkenness as a type of behavior of offenders, deserves special attention. Among these motives is the desire to get rid of boredom. In psychology, boredom is a special mental state of a person associated with emotional hunger. Adolescents in this category have significantly weakened or lost interest in cognitive activity. Adolescents who drink alcohol almost do not engage in social activities. Significant shifts are observed in the sphere of leisure. Finally, some teenagers consume alcohol to relieve themselves of stress, to free themselves from unpleasant experiences. A tense, anxious state may arise in connection with their certain position in the family, school community.

But not only teenagers drink alcohol regularly, and despite the widespread development of anti-alcohol propaganda, many adults are not even aware of the extent of the harm caused by alcohol to the body.

The fact is that in everyday life there are many myths about the benefits of alcoholic beverages. It is believed, for example, that alcohol has a therapeutic effect, not only for colds, but also for a number of other diseases, including the gastrointestinal tract, such as stomach ulcers. Doctors, on the contrary, believe that a peptic ulcer patient should absolutely not take alcohol. Where is the truth? After all, small doses of alcohol de really whet the appetite.

Or another belief that exists among people: alcohol excites, invigorates, improves mood, well-being, makes the conversation more lively and interesting, which is important for the company of young people. It is not for nothing that alcohol is taken “against fatigue”, with ailments, and at almost all festivities. Moreover, there is an opinion that alcohol is a high-calorie product that quickly provides the energy needs of the body, which is important, for example, during a hike, etc. And in beer and dry grape wines, in addition, there is a whole set of vitamins and aromatic substances. In medical practice, the bacteriostatic properties of alcohol are used, using it for disinfection (for injections, etc.), preparation of medicines, but by no means for the treatment of diseases.

So, alcohol is taken to cheer up, to warm the body, to prevent and treat diseases, in particular as a disinfectant, as well as a means of increasing appetite and an energetically valuable product. Is it really as useful as it is commonly believed?

One of the Pirogov congresses of Russian doctors adopted a resolution on the dangers of alcohol: “ there is not a single organ in the human body that has not been subjected to the destructive action of alcohol; alcohol does not have any such action that could not be achieved by another remedy acting healthier, safer and more reliable. No such a morbid condition in which it is necessary to prescribe alcohol for any length of time. So the reasoning about the benefits of alcohol is still just a common misconception.

Alcohol from the stomach enters the bloodstream two minutes after drinking. The blood carries it to all cells of the body. First of all, the cells of the cerebral hemispheres suffer. The conditioned reflex activity of a person worsens, the formation of complex movements slows down, the ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the central nervous system changes. Under the influence of alcohol, voluntary movements are disturbed, a person loses there is the ability to manage oneself.

The penetration of alcohol to the cells of the frontal lobe of the cortex liberates the emotions of a person, unjustified joy, stupid laughter, lightness in judgments appear. Following the increasing excitation in the cerebral cortex, there is a sharp weakening of the processes of inhibition. The cortex ceases to control the work of the lower parts of the brain. A person loses restraint, modesty, he says and does what he never said and would not do when sober. Each new portion of alcohol paralyzes the higher nerve centers more and more, as if connecting them and not allowing them to interfere with the activity of the lower parts of the brain: coordination of movements is disturbed, for example, eye movement (objects begin to double), an awkward staggering gait appears.

Violation of the nervous system and internal organs is observed with any use of alcohol: one-time, episodic and systematic.

It is known that disorders of the nervous system are directly related to the concentration of alcohol in human blood. When the amount of alcohol is 0.04-0.05 percent, the cerebral cortex turns off, the person loses control over himself, loses the ability to reason rationally. At a blood alcohol concentration of 0.1 percent, the deeper parts of the brain that control movement are inhibited. Human movements become uncertain and are accompanied by causeless joy, revival, fussiness. However, in 15 percent of people, alcohol can cause despondency, a desire to fall asleep. As the alcohol content in the blood increases, a person's ability to hear and see is weakened, and the speed of motor reactions is blunted. An alcohol concentration of 0.2 percent affects areas of the brain that control a person's emotional behavior. At the same time, base instincts are awakened, sudden aggressiveness appears. With a blood alcohol concentration of 0.3 percent, a person, although he is conscious, does not understand what he sees and hears. This state is called alcoholic stupefaction.

Systematic, excessive alcohol consumption can cause zheloe disease - alcoholism.

Alcoholism is the regular, compulsive consumption of large amounts of alcohol over a long period of time. Let's take a look at what alcohol can do to our body.

Blood. Alcohol inhibits the production of platelets, as well as white and red blood cells. Outcome: anemia, infections, bleeding.

Brain. Alcohol slows down blood circulation in the vessels of the brain, leading to constant oxygen starvation of its cells, resulting in memory loss and slow mental degradation. Early sclerotic changes develop in the vessels, and the risk of cerebral hemorrhage increases.

Heart. Alcohol abuse causes an increase in the level of cholesterol in the blood, persistent hypertension and myocardial dystrophy. Cardiovascular insufficiency puts the patient on the brink of the grave. Alcoholic myopathy: muscle degeneration as a result of alcoholism. The reasons for this are not using the muscles, poor diet and alcohol damage to the nervous system. In alcoholic cardiomyopathy, the heart muscle is affected.

Intestines. The constant effect of alcohol on the wall of the small intestine leads to a change in the structure of cells, and they lose their ability to fully absorb nutrients and mineral components, which ends with the depletion of the alcoholic's body. Constant inflammation of the stomach and later the intestines causes ulcers of the digestive organs.

Liver. This organ suffers from alcohol the most: an inflammatory process (hepatitis) occurs, and then cicatricial degeneration (cirrhosis). The liver ceases to perform its function of decontaminating toxic metabolic products, producing blood proteins and other important functions, which leads to the inevitable death of the patient. Cirrhosis is an insidious disease: it slowly creeps up on a person, and then beats, and immediately to death. The cause of the disease is the toxic effects of alcohol.

Pancreas. Alcoholic patients are 10 times more likely to develop diabetes than non-drinkers: alcohol destroys the pancreas, the organ that produces insulin, and profoundly perverts metabolism.

Leather. A drunk person almost always looks older than his years: his skin very soon loses its elasticity and ages prematurely.

3. Addiction

A drug is any chemical compound that affects the functioning of the body. Drug addiction (this word was formed from the Greek. narkz numbness, sleep + mania madness, passion, attraction) are chronic diseases caused by the abuse of medicinal or non-drug drugs. This is dependence on intoxicating substances, a state of mental and physical dependence on an intoxicating substance that acts on the central nervous system, changes tolerance to a drug with a tendency to increase doses and develop physical dependence.

It may seem that drugs appeared not so long ago, which is associated with the development of chemistry, medicine and other sciences, as well as with rapid scientific and technological progress. However, it is not. Drugs have been known to people for thousands of years. They were consumed by people of different cultures and for different purposes: during religious rites, to restore strength, to change consciousness, to relieve pain and discomfort. Already in the pre-literate period, we have evidence that people knew and used psychoactive chemicals: alcohol and plants, the consumption of which affects consciousness. Archaeological studies have shown that already in 6400 BC. people knew beer and some other alcoholic drinks. Obviously, fermentation processes were discovered by chance (grape wine, by the way, appeared only in the 4th-3rd centuries BC). The first written evidence of the use of intoxicants is the story of Noah's drunkenness from the Book of Genesis. Various plants were also used, causing physiological and mental changes, usually in religious rites or during medical procedures.

Until the beginning of the 20th century, there were practically no restrictions on the production and consumption of drugs. Attempts have sometimes been made to reduce or even ban the use of certain substances, but these have been short-lived and generally unsuccessful. For example, tobacco, coffee and tea were initially met with hostility by Europe. The first European who smoked tobacco - Columbus' companion Rodrigo de Jerez - upon arrival in Spain was imprisoned, as the authorities decided that he was possessed by the devil. There have been several attempts to outlaw coffee and tea. There are also cases when the state did not prohibit drugs, but, on the contrary, contributed to the prosperity of their trade. The best example is the armed conflicts between Great Britain and China in the middle of the 19th century. They are called the Opium Wars because English merchants brought opium into China. By the middle of the 19th century, several million Chinese were addicted to opium. At this time, China certainly came out on top in the world in the consumption of opium, most of which was grown in India and smuggled into the country by the British. The Chinese government passed many laws to control the import of opium, but none of them had the desired effect.

It doesn't take long for people to become drug addicts. Much depends on the individual characteristics of the person taking the drugs. In some cases, addiction to herbal and chemical preparations occurs, almost the first time, while in others it takes weeks, months and even years. There are a variety of judgments about the typology of the personality of drug users, each of which has the right to independent existence. Below are the conclusions of one of the theories of the identity of drug users, the founders of which are E.A. Babayan and A.N. Sergeev. The category of people under consideration includes five conditional groups, including:

1. Experimenters. The largest population of all five groups. It includes people who did not return to this harmful occupation after the first acquaintance with drugs.

2. Occasional consumers. These include mainly those who resort to drugs due to circumstances. For example, in a dubious company, a young man, fearing to be branded as a “black sheep”, boldly rolls up his shirt sleeve for heroin injection. Outside of these or other circumstances, these people do not have a desire to take drugs.

3. Systematic consumers. They take drugs according to a certain pattern. For example, on your birthday, on the occasion of achieving a significant result in your work, once a quarter, etc. It is naively believed that this self-deception will remain without any negative consequences for the psyche and physiology.

4. Regular customers. Consistently formed from the first three groups. Often, they are psychologically addicted to drugs and already because of this they are forced to take drugs not only on the occasion of a “significant event”, but because of the formation of a habit.

5. Patients with drug addiction. The last group is a natural result of taking drugs without a doctor's prescription. Individuals included in it are often dependent on drugs not only mentally, but also physically. According to some estimates, up to 0.5 million people can be classified as drug addicts in Russia.

The first four groups are so-called behavioral and require primarily educational measures, but the fifth group really needs not only qualified treatment, but also social rehabilitation.

As can be seen from the outpatient charts of underage drug users, 11.4% of children have experience of using intoxicating substances for less than 1 year, 46.7% from 1 to 2 years, and from 3 to 5 years - 36.3%, over 5 years - within 1% of adolescents. The average duration of non-medical drug use is 2.3 years. Five years ago, this indicator did not exceed 0.6-1.5 years, and ten years ago it was measured in days, or even hours. The weighted average time interval between the onset of drug use and registration at a drug addiction dispensary is 1.2 years (previously - 0.3-0.5 years).

The change in the way drugs are taken is that intravenous drug use is becoming more widespread among children. This trend has particularly affected neglected youth.

For the sake of clarity, let's consider two groups of drug users - students of schools who are not under the supervision of a narcologist, but who have experience in non-medical administration of drugs, and already established patients of a narcological dispensary.

From the table below, one can trace the qualitative difference between both groups of drug users.

It lies in the commitment of schoolchildren to smoking cannabis derivatives, while neglected teenagers who have become the objects of attention of narcologists use a syringe much more often, inhale toxic substances and cocaine (by 15.5 and 5.2 times, respectively).

Table 1. Modes of drug use among adolescents

The above information shows that the regularity of the gradual and inevitable transition of minors from the use of so-called "soft" drugs to "hard" or "hard" drugs acquires characteristics accelerated in time.

When we talk about drug addiction and the study of the pathogenesis of these diseases, we must clearly understand that this disease is very complex.

The influence of drugs can be divided into three groups:

The first group - influence on certain structures of the brain, causing the development of addiction syndrome;

The second is that drugs have a lot of toxic effects on almost all organs and systems: the heart, liver, stomach, brain, etc.

And, finally, the third group, which we consider very important, is the effect on offspring. It has now been proven that children born to parents with drug addiction have an increased biological risk of drug addiction, and most of them show all kinds of behavioral changes: aggressiveness, irritability, psychopathy, depression. In addition, drug use leads to the birth of a child with an addiction syndrome.

More and more evidence is accumulating that parental drug abuse has some effect on offspring, and not even for one generation. This is a very important question. For example, “fetal drug syndrome” is a disease that occurs when a mother during pregnancy uses drugs that act directly on the fetus. This organic pathology of the brain can be expressed to varying degrees: certain characteristic changes in the skull, dementia, etc. In addition, functional changes in the nervous system (hyperexcitability, emotional instability to depressive reactions, etc.) are widespread in these children. In Lvov, a survey was conducted of children born to drug-addicted fathers and mothers. These children were divided into two age groups: one included children under 25 years old, the other - over 25 years old.

Children of the 1st group, born to fathers of drug addicts, were found to have neurotic reactions (33%), attention deficit (19%), bedwetting (9%), mental retardation (10%), somatic pathology (38%). Only 25% were healthy. There were 75% of children with some or other deviations (Table 2).

Table 2. Frequency of mental and somatic disorders in children born to parents who are drug addicts, %

Note: one child could have a combination of several signs, so their totality exceeds 100%.

The results of the examination of the children of the second group are shown in Table 2.

Table 3. Frequency of psychopathology in adult children born to parents with drug addiction, %

Note: One and the same person could have several diseases, so their sum exceeds 100%.

4. Radiation

The fact that radiation has a detrimental effect on human health is no longer a secret to anyone. When radioactive radiation passes through the human body, or when contaminated substances enter the body, the energy of waves and particles is transferred to our tissues, and from them to cells. As a result, the atoms and molecules that make up the body become excited, which leads to disruption of their activity and even death. It all depends on the dose of radiation received, the state of human health and the duration of exposure.

For ionizing radiation there are no barriers in the body, so any molecule can be exposed to radioactive effects, the consequences of which can be very diverse. The excitation of individual atoms can lead to the transformation of some substances into others, cause biochemical changes, genetic disorders, etc. Proteins or fats that are vital for normal cellular activity may be affected. Thus, radiation affects the body at the micro level, causing damage that is not immediately noticeable, but manifests itself after many years. The defeat of certain groups of proteins in the cell can cause cancer, as well as genetic mutations that are transmitted through several generations. The impact of low doses of radiation is very difficult to detect, because the effect of this manifests itself after decades.

Table 4

The harm of radioactive elements and the effect of radiation on the human body is actively studied by scientists around the world. It has been proven that daily emissions from nuclear power plants contain the radionuclide "Caesium-137", which, when ingested, causes sarcoma (a type of cancer), "Strontium-90" replaces calcium in bones and breast milk, which leads to leukemia (blood cancer) , bone and breast cancer. And even small doses of exposure to Krypton-85 significantly increase the likelihood of developing skin cancer.

Scientists note that people living in large cities are most exposed to radiation, because in addition to the natural background radiation, building materials, food, air, and contaminated objects also affect them. Constant excess over the natural radiation background leads to early aging, weakening of vision and the immune system, excessive psychological excitability, hypertension and the development of anomalies in children.

Even the smallest doses of radiation cause irreversible genetic changes that are passed down from generation to generation, leading to the development of Down syndrome, epilepsy, and the appearance of other defects in mental and physical development. It is especially scary that both food and household items are exposed to radiation contamination. Recently, cases of seizure of counterfeit and low-quality products, which are a powerful source of ionizing radiation, have become more frequent. Even children's toys are made radioactive! What kind of health of the nation can we talk about?!

A large amount of information has been obtained in the analysis of the results of the use of radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer. Many years of experience have allowed physicians to obtain extensive information about the response of human tissues to radiation. This reaction for different organs and tissues turned out to be unequal, and the differences are very large. Most organs have time to heal radiation damage to one degree or another and therefore tolerate a series of small doses better than the same total dose of radiation received at one time.

The red bone marrow and other elements of the hematopoietic system are most vulnerable to radiation. Fortunately, they also have a remarkable ability to regenerate, and if the radiation dose is not so high as to cause damage to all cells, the hematopoietic system can fully restore its functions. If, however, not the whole body, but some part of it, was exposed to radiation, then the surviving brain cells are enough to completely replace the damaged cells.

The reproductive organs and eyes are also highly sensitive to radiation. A single irradiation of the testes at a minimum dose leads to temporary sterility of men, and a slightly higher dose is enough to lead to permanent sterility: only after many years can the testes again produce full-fledged sperm. Apparently, the testes are the only exception to the general rule: the total dose of radiation received in several doses is more dangerous for them, and not less than the same dose received at one time. The ovaries are much less sensitive to the effects of radiation, at least in adult women.

For the eye, the most vulnerable part is the lens. Dead cells become opaque, and the growth of cloudy areas leads first to cataracts, and then to complete blindness. The higher the dose, the greater the loss of vision.

Children are also extremely sensitive to the effects of radiation. Relatively small doses of irradiation of cartilage tissue can slow down or completely stop their bone growth, which leads to abnormalities in the development of the skeleton. The younger the child, the more bone growth is inhibited. It also turned out that irradiating a child's brain during radiation therapy can cause changes in his character, lead to memory loss, and in very young children even to dementia and idiocy. The bones and brain of an adult are capable of withstanding much higher doses.

The fetal brain is also extremely sensitive to the effects of radiation, especially if the mother is exposed to radiation between the eighth and fifteenth weeks of pregnancy. During this period, the cerebral cortex forms in the fetus, and there is a high risk that a mentally retarded child will be born as a result of maternal exposure (for example, X-rays). About 30 children exposed in utero during the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki suffered in this way. Although the individual risk is great and the consequences particularly distressing, the number of women in this stage of pregnancy at any given time is only a small fraction of the total population. This is, however, the most serious effect of all the known effects of irradiation of the human fetus, although many other serious consequences have been found after irradiation of animal embryos during their intrauterine development, including malformations, underdevelopment and death.

Most adult tissues are relatively insensitive to the action of radiation. Kidneys, liver, bladder, mature cartilage tissue are the most radiation-resistant organs. The lungs - an extremely complex organ - are much more vulnerable, and in the blood vessels, slight but possibly significant changes can occur already at relatively small doses.

The study of the genetic consequences of radiation exposure is even more difficult than in the case of cancer. First, little is known about what damage occurs in the human genetic apparatus during irradiation; secondly, the full identification of all hereditary defects occurs only over many generations; and thirdly, as in the case of cancer, these defects cannot be distinguished from those which have arisen from other causes.

Approximately 10% of all living newborns have some form of genetic defect, ranging from mild physical defects such as color blindness to severe conditions such as Down's syndrome, Huntington's chorea, and various malformations. Many of the embryos and fetuses with severe hereditary disorders do not survive to birth; according to available data, about half of all cases of spontaneous abortion are associated with abnormalities in the genetic material. But even if children with hereditary defects are born alive, they are five times less likely to survive to their first birthday than normal children.

Genetic disorders can be classified into two main types: chromosomal aberrations, involving changes in the number or structure of chromosomes, and mutations in the genes themselves. Gene mutations are further subdivided into dominant (which appear immediately in the first generation) and recessive (which can only appear if the same gene is mutated in both parents; such mutations may not appear for many generations or not be detected at all. ). Both types of anomalies may lead to hereditary diseases in subsequent generations, or may not appear at all.

Among more than 27,000 children whose parents received relatively high doses during the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, only two probable mutations were found, and among about the same number of children whose parents received lower doses, not a single such case was noted. Among children whose parents were irradiated as a result of the atomic bomb explosion, there was also no statistically significant increase in the frequency of chromosomal abnormalities. While some surveys have concluded that exposed parents are more likely to have a child with Down syndrome, other studies do not support this.

5. The influence of chemical elements on human health

Global air pollution is accompanied by a deterioration in the health of the population. At the same time, the problem of quantifying the impact of these pollutions has not yet been finally resolved. For the most part, the negative impact is mediated through food chains, since the bulk of pollution falls on the surface of the earth (solids) or is washed out of the atmosphere with the help of precipitation. Except in emergencies, changes in health status can be difficult to link to a specific xenobiotic released into the air. In addition to the etiological factor, the scale of damage to people is significantly influenced by meteorological conditions that contribute to or hinder the dispersion of harmful substances.

Chronic poisonings are quite common, but they are rarely recorded. A statistically significant dependence on atmospheric air pollution has been established for bronchitis, gradually turning into such a complex disease as bronchial asthma, pneumonia, pulmonary emphysema, as well as for acute respiratory diseases. Air pollution affects the body's resistance, which is manifested in the growth of infectious diseases. There is good evidence of the effect of pollution on the duration of disease. Thus, a respiratory disease in children living in contaminated areas lasts 2-2.5 times longer than in children living in relatively clean areas. Numerous studies conducted in recent years indicate that children living in areas with a high level of air pollution have a low level of physical development, which is often assessed as disharmonious. The observed lag of the level of biological development from the passport age indicates a very unfavorable effect of air pollution on the health of the younger generation. To the greatest extent, atmospheric air pollution affects health indicators in urban centers, in particular in cities with a developed metallurgical, processing and coal industry. The territory of such cities is affected by both non-specific pollutants (dust, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, soot, nitrogen dioxide) and specific ones (fluorine, phenol, metals, etc.). Moreover, non-specific pollutants account for over 95% of the total volume of atmospheric air pollution.

The danger of the influence of polluted atmospheric air on the health of the population is caused by the objective action of the following factors:

1) A variety of pollution. It is believed that a person living in an industrial area could potentially be exposed to several hundred thousand chemicals. Typically, a limited number of chemicals are actually present in a given area at relatively high concentrations. However, the combined action of atmospheric pollutants can lead to an increase in their toxic effects.

2) The possibility of a massive impact, since breathing is continuous and a person inhales up to 20 thousand liters of air per day. Even insignificant concentrations of chemicals with such a volume of breathing can lead to a toxically significant intake of harmful substances into the body.

3) Direct access of pollutants to the internal environment of the body. The lungs have a surface of about 100 m2, the air during breathing comes into almost direct contact with the blood, in which almost everything that is present in the air dissolves. From the lungs, blood enters the systemic circulation, bypassing such a detoxification barrier as the liver. It has been established that the poison received by inhalation often acts 80-100 times stronger than when it enters through the gastrointestinal tract.

4) Difficulty of protection against xenobiotics. A person who refuses to eat contaminated food or poor-quality water cannot but breathe polluted air. At the same time, the pollutant acts on all groups of the population around the clock.

In all areas with high levels of atmospheric air pollution, the incidence as one of the health indicators is higher than in relatively clean areas. So, in the Dorogobuzh district of the Smolensk region, in the body of children and women who do not have professional loads, an accumulation of elements contained in the emissions of the Dorogobuzh industrial hub (chromium, nickel, titanium, copper, aluminum) was noted. As a result, the incidence of respiratory diseases in children was 1.8 times and neurological diseases 1.9 times higher than in a relatively clean area.

In Togliatti, children living in the area affected by emissions from the Northern Industrial Hub were 2.4–8.8 times more likely to suffer from upper respiratory tract diseases and bronchial asthma than children living in a relatively clean area.

In Saransk, the population living in the area adjacent to the antibiotic production plant has a specific allergization of the body to antibiotics and candidal antigen.

In the cities of the Chelyabinsk region, where more than 80% of emissions are caused by ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, there is an increased incidence of diseases of the endocrine system, blood, respiratory organs in children and adults, as well as congenital anomalies in children and adults, complications of pregnancy and childbirth, skin diseases and malignant neoplasms.

In rural areas of the Rostov region, in areas with high pesticide loads (up to 20 kg/ha), the prevalence of circulatory diseases in children increased by 113%, bronchial asthma - by 95% and congenital anomalies - by 55%.

The most important sources of chemical pollution of the environment in Russia are industrial enterprises, motor transport, thermal and nuclear power plants. In cities, a significant contribution to environmental pollution is also made by poorly utilized municipal waste, and in rural areas - pesticides and mineral fertilizers, polluted effluents from livestock complexes.

Atmospheric pollution primarily affects the body's resistance, the decrease of which results in increased morbidity, as well as other physiological changes in the body. Compared to other sources of chemical pollution (food, drinking water), atmospheric air is a particular danger, since there is no chemical barrier on its way, similar to the liver when pollutants penetrate through the gastrointestinal tract.

The main sources of soil pollution are chemical leaks, the deposition of airborne pollutants on the soil, the overuse of chemicals in agriculture, and the improper storage, storage and disposal of liquid and solid waste.

In Russia as a whole, soil pollution with pesticides is about 7.25%. The regions with the highest pollution include the soils of the North Caucasus, Primorsky Krai and the Central Black Earth regions, the regions with medium pollution - the soils of the Kurgan and Omsk regions, the Middle Volga region, the territories with low pollution - the soils of the Upper Volga region, Western Siberia, Irkutsk and Moscow regions.

Currently, almost all water bodies in Russia are subject to anthropogenic pollution. In the water of most rivers and lakes, the MAC is exceeded for at least one pollutant. According to the State Committee for Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of Russia, drinking water in more than 30% of water bodies does not comply with GOST.

Pollution of water and soil, as well as air pollution, is a serious problem in Russia. Their increasing pollution with toxic chemicals such as heavy metals and dioxins, as well as nitrates and pesticides, has a direct impact on the quality of food, drinking water and, as direct effect on health.

optimal cigarette nicotine

Bibliography

"Fundamentals of Radiation Safety", V.P. Mashkovich, A.M. Panchenko.

“When a person is his own enemy” G.M. Entin.

Life safety textbook, grades 10-11, V.Ya. Syunkov Publishing house "Astrel", 2002.

"Drugs and drug addiction" N.B. Serdyukov st n / a: Phoenix, 2000. - "Panacea Series" - Ro-256s.

Journal “Fundamentals of Life Safety”. No. 10, 2002, pp. 20-26.

8. Ivanets N.N. Lectures on narcology. "Knowledge", Moscow, 2000.

9. Belogurov S.B. Popular about drugs and addictions. - 2nd ed., corrected. and additional - St. Petersburg: "Nevsky Dialect", 2000.

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1. Tobacco smoking - the most common substance abuse in the world today. Extensive advertising of tobacco products on television involves more and more tens of millions of Russians in the whirlpool of smoking and diseases associated with it.

Smoking is not without reason called the "tobacco plague", and some doctors believe that the harm caused by plague epidemics in the middle of the 20th century pales before the modern epidemic of smoking. The number of direct victims of tobacco in the world is estimated at 2 million lives per year (L. A. Leshchinsky).

With smoking, more than a hundred harmful substances enter the body - nicotine, hydrogen sulfide, acetic, formic and hydrocyanic acids, ethylene, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, various resins, radioactive polonium, salts of heavy metals, a group of carcinogenic substances that stimulate the growth of cancer cells, etc. The above substances taken together make up about 13 mg, and 1.5 g of nicotine and other toxic substances can be isolated from a hundred cigarettes. Settling in the lungs and getting into the blood, they have a devastating effect on the body. Nicotine is especially toxic.

Nicotine - the strongest poison, has a harmful effect on all organs and primarily on the central nervous system. Nicotine contributes to the narrowing of blood vessels, including those that supply blood to vital organs - the brain, heart, kidneys.

Smoking causes calcification of blood vessels, has a negative effect on blood pressure, heart function, and oxygen consumption. Smokers are much more likely to suffer from angina pectoris, earlier and more severely they begin to suffer from atherosclerosis, hypertension. Smokers are 5-6 times more likely than non-smokers to experience sudden death from cardiovascular diseases (L. A. Leshchinsky).

Perhaps the highest argument against smoking is the high probability of cancer of the lungs, respiratory tract, lips, tongue, larynx, esophagus, stomach, urinary tract. It has been established with great accuracy that an "inveterate" smoker injects into his lungs about 800 g of tobacco tar per year, which contains so-called carcinogens - chemical stimulants of malignant tumors. Smokers account for 90% of all diagnosed cases of lung cancer. People who smoke more than a pack of cigarettes a day are 10 to 15 times more likely to get cancer than those who don't smoke at all.

A.P. Laptev cites the instructive testament of the American actor Yul Brynner, published by US television. Shortly before his death in October 1985 from lung cancer, Brynner recorded a short video message to his compatriots: “Now that I have died, I warn you: DON'T SMOK. If I didn't smoke, I wouldn't have cancer. I'm absolutely sure of it."

It should be remembered that almost a third of all diseases in men after 45 years of age are caused by addiction to smoking. Mortality among smokers aged 40–49 is 3 times higher than among non-smokers, and among 60–69 year olds it is 19 times higher. A 50-year-old person who smokes a pack of cigarettes a day is twice as likely to die as a non-smoker of the same age. The British Union of Physicians carefully calculated that each cigarette shortens life by 5-6 minutes. A person who smokes 9 cigarettes a day, therefore, shortens life by 5 years; 20-30 cigarettes - for 6.2 years, up to 40 cigarettes - for 8.3 years (A.P. Laptev).

Epidemiological surveys of approximately 1 million Americans conducted by the US Cancer Institute revealed statistics on the reduction in the life of smokers (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3

Reducing the life of a smoker depending on the number of cigarettes smoked daily and his age

Here we also note that a number of other factors also influence the life expectancy of smokers (age, the onset of smoking, the way of smoking, lifestyle, attitude to sports, etc.).

Smoking is not only a shortening of life, lung cancer, atherosclerosis, angina pectoris, hypertension - these are also various violations of the body's control by the nervous system, increased fatigue, deterioration in the quality of work and study.

Nicotine and other toxic substances gradually suppress the function of the gonads, reduce the productivity of germ cells and their quality.

A huge danger to the reproduction of a healthy population is the consequences of smoking women. Professor L. A. Leshchinsky, referring to the report of the committee of experts of the World Health Organization, cites alarming data on the consequences of women smoking. Stillbirths, miscarriages, and fetal death shortly after birth were more common among female smokers than among nonsmokers. The body weight of infants born to smoking mothers is on average 150-240 g less than that of children born to non-smoking women. This is due not even to nicotine, but carbon monoxide, which easily passes through the placenta and forms a special compound with hemoglobin in the fetal blood (erythrocytes) - carboxyhemoglobin. At the same time, there is more carboxyhemoglobin in the blood of the fetus than in the mother. Consequently, a smoking mother, as it were, makes the fetus "smoke" even more intensely than she herself does. In the group of women who smoked, premature births were observed 2-3 times more often. Smoking during pregnancy causes a large number of deformities, various anomalies in newborns. Children of smoking mothers often, up to the age of seven, lag behind their peers in mental and physical development. In addition, children born to women who smoke during pregnancy have a lifelong increased risk of developing cancer. All girls, women, mothers really need to think about this before you start smoking!

It should be added that even the appearance, the portrait of a smoking woman is unattractive. Smokers' voices quickly grow coarse, their complexion deteriorates (pale yellow - the "signature" skin color of smoking women), wrinkles appear, teeth and fingers turn yellow, and smells of an "ashtray" from the mouth. You can even say that because of smoking, she loses her femininity, and the body quickly fades.

Smoking, like alcohol, is a socio-psychological factor. At the same time, the continuation of smoking depends mainly on the formed habit to the effects of nicotine.

Sociologists have determined that the habit of smoking among young people is formed under the influence of three factors: living surrounded by smokers, smoking parents, smoking friends. The very factors that motivate a person to smoke are very primitive. Usually they come down to curiosity, imitation and the desire to follow fashion. To a large extent, the onset of smoking is also explained by the psychological characteristics of a person: increased suggestibility and uncritical perception of extraneous influences, a tendency to imitate, a desire for self-affirmation and independence, and a sharp protest against any "prohibitions".

At present, it is clear to everyone that smoking is a great evil both for the smoker himself, and for the people around him and in general for the whole society. But the army of smokers is not decreasing. What motivates smokers and makes them smoke for years, decades? In this case, it must be taken into account that nicotine, regularly introduced from the outside into the body, from a certain moment begins to be included in the course of metabolic processes. Nicotine deficiency in metabolic processes causes a number of unpleasant sensations. Nicotine is also included in the nervous control system (nervous regulation) of the body in two directions - an increase in excitability, which is then replaced by depression of nerve cells, which requires repeated use. It should be remembered that when smoking, there is an imbalance in the autonomic nervous system between the sympathetic and parasympathetic parts in the direction of the predominance of the sympathetic department. In order to maintain balance, he has to smoke again and again. Reducing or stopping the intake of nicotine in the body causes a temporary painful condition. This condition is called "withdrawal syndrome". When trying to quit smoking, a person experiences the unpleasant sensations of an abstinence syndrome - these are headaches, sleep disturbance, decreased appetite, palpitations, sweating, hand tremors, general weakness and increased fatigue, frequent anxiety, anxiety, impaired attention mobilization.

Of great importance are, first of all, the promotion of a healthy lifestyle and special anti-smoking propaganda in educational institutions, at work, at home, in the family. Of particular importance is the explanatory work among students of vocational schools, technical schools and universities. The role of personal example is also great, especially parents, teachers, teachers, trainers, doctors and medical workers. But the most important thing is the conscious determination to quit smoking and the will to implement this decision. When I. P. Pavlov was asked how he lived to a ripe old age, practically unaware of illness, the wise physiologist said with conviction: "Do not drink wine, do not grieve your heart with tobacco - you will live as long as Titian lived." Recall that the Italian artist, whom he mentioned, lived to be 104 years old.

2. Alcohol. A special case is the use of alcohol. Any, even the smallest dose of it leads to an increased release of norepinephrine, and therefore to the depletion of the nervous system. It has been established that the most defenseless against the toxic effects of alcohol is the brain. There is a so-called blood-brain barrier, reliably protecting the brain from the intake of various harmful substances from the blood, but it is not a barrier to alcohol. By increasing the permeability of cell membranes, alcohol makes it easier for other harmful substances to enter the brain. It should be emphasized that appetite after drinking alcohol is stimulated only in the initial stages of drunkenness due to an increase in the acidity of gastric juice. In the future, the acidity decreases until the complete absence of acid in the gastric juice. As a result of functional overload of liver cells, fatty degeneration and hepatitis develop, and then cirrhosis of the liver, in which dead liver cells are replaced by connective tissue. Ultimately, the liver decreases in size, ceases to perform its functions. Women should pay attention to the harmful effects of alcohol on the fetus, especially in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. This leads to underdevelopment of the fetus, the birth of weakened or dead children, congenital deformities, and a high level of infant mortality. Alcohol, penetrating into the blood of the fetus, causes malformations of its development, called "fetal alcohol syndrome". The French doctor Deme studied the health of the offspring of 10 families of alcoholics. Of the 57 children, 25 died at an early age (less than a year old), 5 suffered from epilepsy, 5 from severe dropsy, 12 turned out to be helpless mentally retarded, and only 10 were normal.

Alcohol forms a compound in the brain with products of neurohormones, which causes a hallucinatory state in a person, which dulls the sharpness of the perception of events. Once in the human body, alcohol paralyzes, first of all, the central nervous system. More recently, it has been shown that brain cells produce few enzymes that break down alcohol. If the concentration of alcohol in the blood is taken as one, then in the liver it will be equal to 1.45, in the cerebrospinal fluid - 1.5, in the brain - 1.75. Due to oxygen starvation that has arisen in the brain, cortical cells die, which is why there is a decrease in memory and a slowdown in mental activity. It seems to a person in a state of intoxication that he has come to a calming discharge, but in fact his nervous tension and fatigue have increased.

The most important part of a healthy lifestyle regimen is abstinence from alcohol. A healthy lifestyle is, above all, a sober lifestyle. According to psychologist B.S. Bratus, one of the socio-psychological factors that determine potential drunkenness is the negative influence of the environment, the so-called alcohol traditions, i.e. the habit of accompanying large and small events with a drink, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200ba "real man" as a drinking person. Alcohol in a systematically drinking person from a certain moment is firmly included in metabolic processes, becomes, as it were, a necessary part of them. This leads to the fact that abstinence from drinking causes a number of painful manifestations in such a person, which, by an effort of will (and sometimes by a number of special medical measures) can, in the end, be overcome. The insidiousness of alcohol also lies in the fact that it is often not so easy to break out of the "spiritual embrace" of drunkenness, and this requires the mobilization of all the mental and volitional resources of a person, the help of the family, the team, and often serious medical care.

We will give the well-known scheme of Jellinek, which shows the development of the disease of alcoholism.

• 1. initial phase. Intoxication with loss of memory, "eclipses". Secret drinks. Looking for an opportunity to drink in secret from others. Constant thoughts about drinking. Increasingly, it seems that drinking is not enough. The desire to drink "for the future." Craving for alcohol. Consciousness of one's guilt, the desire to avoid talking about cravings for alcohol.
• 2. critical phase. Loss of control after the first sip. The desire to find an excuse for his craving for alcohol. Resistance to all attempts to stop drunkenness. Arrogance, aggressive behavior, the desire to blame others for their troubles. Prolonged guilt. Random drinks. Periods of complete abstinence, interrupted by relapses of drunkenness. Random drunkenness. Loss of friends. Leaving a permanent job, odd jobs. Loss of interest in everything that has nothing to do with drinking. Bad mood. Bad appetite. Sobering-up station, hospital. Staying there causes irritation and the desire to explain this by chance, injustice, intrigues of enemies. Loss of sexual potency. Increasing passion for alcohol. Constant drinking.
• 3. chronic phase. Prolonged, persistent, daily hangover. Personality breakdown. Constant clouding of memory. Confusion of thoughts. Consumption of alcoholic products intended for technical purposes. Loss of the body's adaptive abilities in relation to alcohol. Unfounded obsession. Heart attacks, alcohol delirium, delirium tremens. Alcoholic psychosis. “It is difficult to imagine the beneficial change that would occur in all human life if people stopped intoxicating with vodka, wine, tobacco, opium,” said the great writer Leo Tolstoy.

Every person who is excessively inclined to consume alcohol should ask himself, with full responsibility and self-criticism, whether he himself, without outside interference, can get rid of harmful attachment. If the answer is negative or attempts to overcome the disease on your own turn out to be futile, you should resort to the help of medicine. Here it would be appropriate to quote the fair words of Academician I. P. Pavlov: "Alcohol causes much more grief than joy, although it is used for the sake of joy." It is quite obvious that this is worth thinking about, and not only for student-athletes.

Drugs. Every sane person should consider drugs as the most dangerous enemy to his health. Drugs include opium and its derivatives, Indian hemp preparations, and some sleeping pills. Addiction to them, even episodic, has a detrimental effect on the body and can lead to serious illness - addiction. When drugs are introduced into the body, they cause a special state euphoria. Along with the rise in mood, a slight degree of clouding of consciousness (stunning), distortion of perception of complex and simple phenomena appears, attention worsens, thinking is upset, coordination of movements is disturbed.

The insidious effect of drugs also lies in the fact that an irresistible craving for them imperceptibly develops, which is characterized by a number of signs. First, the usual doses no longer give the desired effect. Secondly, there is an irresistible desire for this drug and the desire to get it, no matter what. Thirdly, when the drug is withdrawn, a serious condition develops, which is characterized by physical weakness, melancholy, and insomnia (A.P. Laptev).

It is not uncommon for some people to become addicted to drugs while being treated with these drugs. After recovery, they continue to feel the need for drugs, although the need for their use for medical reasons has already passed.

Another danger is the frequent and uncontrolled use of sleeping pills. The habit of these far from harmless drugs does not bode well. In large doses, they have a toxic effect on the body. Therefore, sleeping pills should be used only for medical reasons and under constant medical supervision.

However, most often a fatal step on the road to drug addiction is a single use of the drug because of curiosity, a desire to experience its effect, or for the purpose of imitation.

With prolonged use of drugs, chronic poisoning of the body occurs with profound disorders in various organs. Gradually, mental and physical exhaustion sets in. Inveterate drug addicts are characterized by increased irritability, unstable mood, impaired coordination of movements, hand tremors, and sweating. Their mental abilities noticeably decrease, their memory deteriorates, their ability to work drops sharply, their will weakens, and their sense of duty is lost. Drug addicts quickly degrade as individuals and sometimes reach serious crimes (A.P. Laptev).

Strict measures are being taken in Russia and around the world to prevent the possibility of manufacturing and using drugs. The legislation provides for severe punishment for the illegal manufacture, storage and sale of any type of narcotic substances. Nevertheless, drug addiction exists, and therefore every cultured person, every athlete and athlete should be clearly aware of the disastrous effect of drugs and always remember that careless handling of them leads to extremely serious consequences.

In addition, no less dangerous for the health of athletes and athletes stimulants, belonging to the group of so-called doping, who first began to use the "pros". Back in Rome, at the Olympics-60, doping led to the death of Danish cyclist Knud Jensen.

Like a cancerous tumor, doping began to corrode the sport and penetrated into almost all of its types. The use of anabolic steroids in order to increase the level of human performance leads to disruption of the functions of the heart, liver, genital organs and other detrimental consequences. Of particular danger is the use of steroids by athletes, especially young ones, in whom the process of growth and development has not yet ended. Side effects of drugs are manifested by muscularization, a violation of the normal growth process, a change in voice, male-type hair growth. When taking steroids, there is also a violation of the menstrual cycle.

Doping must be fought relentlessly. There are lists of officially prohibited drugs. At major international and national competitions, when fixing world, European and Olympic records, doping control became mandatory. But, unfortunately, we can cite dozens of cases of the use of prohibited doping drugs and stimulants by outstanding athletes. As an example, the scandal at the 1994 World Cup with D. Maradona.

In the world of sport, the noble Olympic ideals should triumph, and sport itself should not serve as a bargaining chip for businessmen who, in essence, are completely alien to its interests, and so that the day does not come when sport will no longer be called a synonym for health. Outstanding athletes are worth millions, and we must not forget this.

As you can see, you have to fight for health, give up some of your views and habits. We must always remember the responsibility for our health to ourselves, children, relatives, loved ones, to society.

"Make sure you stay healthy! ", - said the People's Artist of the USSR F. Ranevskaya, known for her creative longevity.

There are a lot of opportunities and reserves for a long and healthy life, but the reserves without load do not remain on their own, they need to be constantly supported - trained. A person must take care of this himself, and at the same time make significant efforts. The authors could not ignore the recommendations of the famous cardiac surgeon N. M. Amosova.

• 1. Most diseases are not to blame for nature, not society, but only the person himself. Most often he gets sick from laziness and greed, but sometimes also from irrationality.
• 2. Don't rely on medicine. It treats many diseases well, but cannot make a person healthy. Until she can teach a person how to become healthy. Furthermore: be afraid to be taken prisoner by the doctors! Sometimes they tend to exaggerate the weaknesses of man and the power of their science, create imaginary illnesses in people and issue bills that they cannot pay.
• 3. To become healthy, you need your own efforts, constant and significant. Nothing can replace them. Man, fortunately, is so perfect that it is almost always possible to restore health. Only necessary efforts are increasing with age and the deepening of diseases.
• 4. The magnitude of any effort is determined by incentives, incentives - by the significance of the goal, time and probability of achieving it. And I'm sorry, but also in character! Unfortunately, health, as an important goal, confronts a person when death becomes a close reality. However even death cannot frighten a weak person for a long time.
• 5. Equally essential for health four conditions: physical activity, dietary restrictions, hardening, time and the ability to relax. And a fifth – happy life!

Unfortunately, without the first conditions, it does not provide health. But if there is no happiness in life, then where can one find incentives for efforts to strain and starve? Alas!

• 6. Nature is merciful: 20-30 minutes of physical education a day is enough, but such that you suffocate, sweat and your pulse doubles. If this time is doubled, it will be generally excellent.
• 7. You need to limit yourself in food. Normal human weight (body length (in centimeters) minus 100).
• 8. Know how to relax science, but it also requires character. If only he was!
• 9. About a happy life. They say that health is happiness in itself. This is not true: it is so easy to get used to health and stop noticing it. However, it helps to achieve happiness in the family and at work. Helps, but does not define. True, the disease - it is certainly a misfortune.

So is it worth it to fight for health? Think! Here we note that if a person dreams, sets himself an achievable goal in the future, then he will always be young in his soul, despite his age (I. A. Pismensky, Yu. N. Allyanov).