Carthage. History of the Phoenicians in North Africa. Meaning of the word Carthage Carthage modern name

CARTHAGE (Phoenician Karthadasht, literally - the New City; hence the Greek Kaρ - χηδών, Latin Carthago, Cartago, now Cartajanna), an ancient city-state in North Africa (18 km northeast of the modern city of Tunisia), in 7-4 century BC, subjugated a significant part of the coast of North Africa, southern Spain and a number of islands in the Mediterranean Sea. It was founded by the Phoenicians from the city of Tire in the last quarter of the 9th century BC. According to mythological tradition, the founder of Carthage was Dido (Elissa), who became the queen of the new city. After her death, the monarchy was abolished.

Due to its convenient geographical position, since the beginning of the 7th century, Carthage has become a major handicraft city and a center of intermediary trade, maintained close ties with the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Aegean basin, the cities of Italy and Tartessus. In the 6th century, the commander Malchus, having defeated the local African population, freed Carthage from paying tribute. The subjugation of other Phoenician cities in Africa is also connected with Malch. In the 60-50s of the 6th century, Malchus led military operations on the island of Sicily, which resulted in the subordination of the Phoenician cities of this island to Carthage. The campaign of the Carthaginians on the island of Sardinia (545-535) ended in failure. As punishment, Malchus was sentenced to exile along with his entire army. In response, the commander arbitrarily returned to Carthage and tried to carry out a coup d'état, which failed, and Malchus was executed. After these events, Magon took the leading position in the state. The Magonids held power for three generations. Their important partners in the center of the Mediterranean were the Etruscans, and in alliance with the Etruscan city of Caere, they ousted the Greeks from the island of Corsica. There was a redistribution of spheres of influence in this region, and Sardinia finally fell under the influence of Carthage. In Spain, the Carthaginians destroyed Tartessos and subjugated the remnants of the Tartessian state. They also tried to capture Sicily, but in 480 they were defeated, retaining its western part. A powerful Carthaginian state arose.

Ancient authors write about Carthaginian diversified agriculture. A complex socio-political system of Carthage was formed. There was an opposition of Carthaginian citizens to the rest of the population of the state. The community of citizens consisted of two groups - "powerful", that is, the aristocracy, and "small", as the lower strata of citizens were called. In relation to slaves and other categories of the subordinate population, citizens acted as a close-knit association. The material basis of the civil community was communal property, which appeared in two forms: as the property of the entire community (for example, arsenals, shipyards, etc.) and as the property of individual citizens. The property of citizens was predominantly small and medium. Large proprietors owned several relatively small estates.

Around the middle of the 5th century BC, the power of the Magonids was overthrown. Carthage became an aristocratic republic. The supreme power officially belonged to the people, but in practice it was in the hands of 2 councils (the first - more numerous and the second - consisting of 100 or 104 members; perhaps the latter was a kind of permanent body under the former). An important role in the management was played by pentarchies (commissions of five members), which were not elected, but themselves co-opted their members, who retained influence even after the tenure of the commissions. The highest executive power was two Suffets, elected for a year (they could be re-elected more than once). The main military force was a mercenary army, but the citizens of Carthage themselves were involved in military service (for example, the fleet was recruited from citizens). Citizens were elected to the highest posts in the state, taking into account the property qualification, which sharply reduced the number of people actually admitted to power.

The core of the Carthaginian state was Carthage with the territory directly subordinated to it, and the colonies it brought out. The colonies previously withdrawn by Tire were also subordinate to Carthage, although some of them were officially considered equal with Carthage. The Phoenician colonies (Utica, Hippo, Leptis Magna, Leptis Minor, etc.), which were part of the Carthaginian state, had a social and political structure close to Carthage and, apparently, enjoyed internal autonomy. They had to pay the Carthaginian authorities a tax-duty from their trade. The next category of territories subordinated to Carthage were "subjects". For the most part, Carthage did not interfere in their internal life, preserving their socio-political structure and limiting themselves to taking hostages. But sometimes the Carthaginians established "direct" control through their representatives, forcibly attracting the inhabitants of these territories to military service and imposing heavy taxes. The arbitrariness of the Carthaginian officials increased. Another category is "allies". They were deprived of foreign policy initiative and had to supply contingents to the Carthaginian army. A tax was imposed on them (although probably less than the tax on subjects), their loyalty was also ensured by taking hostages. Attempts by the "allies" to evade their duties were perceived as a rebellion. The existence of such a structure of the Carthaginian state was beneficial not only to the ruling elite, but also to wide sections of the citizens of Carthage. Many citizens went to the colonies and other subordinate cities and territories both as settlers and as officials, which gave them the opportunity to dramatically improve their financial situation. Wide sections of Carthaginian artisans and especially merchants benefited from maritime and commercial predominance.

The Carthaginian state arose as a result of a fierce struggle between the Carthaginians, both with the local population (Libyans, Numidians, etc.), and with their rivals - the Greeks (especially in Sicily). Wars with the Sicilian Greeks went on with varying success. The border between the Carthaginian and Greek parts of the island moved from one side to the other, but on the whole the division of Sicily into two parts remained unchanged.

In 264 BC, the first war began with the main rival of Carthage in the Western Mediterranean - Rome (see Punic Wars; since the Romans called the Carthaginians Puns, the wars were called Punic). As a result of the 1st Punic War (264-241), Carthage lost Sicily. This led to a social and political crisis, an uprising of mercenaries joined by slaves, Libyans and Numidians. The uprising spread to Sardinia and Spain. Only with great efforts, using cunning diplomacy and incredible cruelty, Hamilcar Barca, who stood at the head of the army, managed to defeat the enemies. Carthage was forced to cede Sardinia to Rome. There was a split among the ruling oligarchy. The Barkids (members of the family of Hamilcar Barca) and their supporters advocated the preparation of a new war with Rome, for the restoration of the dominant position of Carthage in the Western Mediterranean. Their interests coincided with the interests of broad sections of citizens who were also interested in revenge. On this basis, an alliance arose between the Barkids and the democratic "party" (led by Hasdrubal).

Hamilcar and his successors restored and expanded the Carthaginian possessions in Spain. Hamilcar's son Hannibal, who led the army, attacked the city of Sagunt, which was in alliance with Rome. This attack was a clear provocation, calculated to be a response from Rome. The 2nd Punic War began (218-201), which, despite the brilliant passage of Hannibal through the Pyrenees and the Alps and victories in a number of battles in Italy, including Cannes (216), ended with the defeat of the Carthaginian army. Under the terms of the treaty, the Carthaginians had to pay a huge indemnity, hand over the entire navy, renounce all non-African possessions, and recognize the independence of Numidia in Africa itself. Carthage actually became a protectorate of Rome.

Carthaginian possessions were reduced to a relatively small urban area. The authorities lost the ability to maintain the well-being of citizens at the expense of subordinate peoples and territories, which led to a new social and political crisis. In 195, Hannibal, elected Suffet, carried out a political reform that limited the power of the oligarchy and opened the way to power, on the one hand, for wide sections of the civilian population, and on the other, for demagogues who could take advantage of the movement of these layers.

The further development of Carthage was interrupted by the 3rd Punic War (149-146). In 146, after a three-year siege, Roman soldiers broke into the city. Fierce battles unfolded on its streets. The last stronghold of the defenders - the temple of Eshmun - was set on fire by the besieged themselves, preferring death to slavery. Most of the Carthaginians died, 500 thousand survivors were turned into slaves. Carthage was destroyed to the ground, and the place was plowed up and sown with salt as a sign of eternal damnation. Part of the Carthaginian territory was transferred to the Numidians, the other was turned into the Roman province of Africa.

Under Julius Caesar (44 BC) and Augustus (29 BC), the Roman colony Colonia Iulia Carthago was founded on the site of ancient Carthage, which turned into a large Mediterranean city and port (especially intensive construction was carried out under the Roman emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Septimius North). In 439 AD it was destroyed by the Vandals, in 533-698 it was part of Byzantium. In 698 conquered by the Arabs.

Lit.: Gsell S. Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord. R., 1913-1928. Vol. 1-8; Acquaro E. Cartagine: un impero sul Mediterraneo. Rome, 1978; Harden D. The Phoenicians. Harmondsworth, 1980; Korablev I. Sh. Hannibal. M., 1981; Tsirkin Yu. B. Carthage and its culture. M., 1986; Blázquez J. M., Alvar J., Wagper C. G. Fenicios y cartagineses en el Mediterraneo. Madrid, 1999; Huss W. Die Karthager. 3. Aufl. Munich, 2004; Shifman I. Sh. Carthage. SPb., 2006.

Yu. B. Tsirkin.

Art. Written sources, as well as archaeological excavations begun in the 19th century, make it possible to restore in general terms the location of the Punic city of Carthage. It was surrounded by a moat and two powerful walls with towers. It consisted of three parts: located on the hills of the "Upper City" (the citadel of Birs with the temple of the god Eshmun) - the political and religious center; "Lower City", located near the harbors; rural suburb of Megara. The ruins of a whole quarter, the remains of 2 harbors and, possibly, the embankment have been preserved. The excavations of the necropolises uncovered a number of burials dating back to the 7th-2nd centuries BC, many of which had a rich inventory - bronze art objects, jewelry, clay lamps, vessels, figurines, masks. There are imported objects - Egyptian amulets, Corinthian vases, etc. Of interest are sarcophagi with a sculptural image of a person, created under the strong influence of Egyptian and Greek art; a number of items also testify to connections with ancient Italy, mainly with Etruria. The monuments of local art include numerous stelae made of limestone, less often of marble, dedicated to the Phoenician gods Tanit and Baal-Amon. The range of works of Punic art also includes monuments of other cities of the Carthaginian state - Dugga, Utiki, etc.

The art of Carthage of the Roman period is in many ways close to the art of other North African centers: Volubilis and Tingis (now Tangier) in modern Morocco, Caesarea (now Sherchel) in modern Algeria, etc. The architecture of the 2nd-3rd centuries AD is characterized by a desire for luxury and grandiosity. A rectangular network of streets was created in the city; on the hill of Byrsa the Capitol was built, which was surrounded by powerful retaining walls with terraces connected by stairs and decorated with statues; on the site of the temple of the god Eshnum, the temple of Aesculapius was erected. A theater and an odeon were built in the city itself, a circus (about 60 thousand spectators) and an amphitheater were built on the outskirts, which, according to Arab writers, had 5 tiers with arcades decorated with sculptural images of animals, ships, etc. In 131-161, baths were built , which included a huge central hall, lounges on the lower floor and bath rooms on the upper. Inside the baths were decorated with mosaics, marble facings and statues. In the architecture of private houses, the desire to adapt the Hellenistic-Roman peristyle house to the African climate is noticeable. The houses usually had pools and small sanctuaries, often decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Decorative and tomb sculpture became widespread.

Lit.: Audollent A. Carthage romaine. R., 1901; Lezine A. Carthage. Utique: Etudes d'architecture et d'urbanisme. R., 1968; Cintas R. Manuel d'archeologie punique. R., 1970-1976. Vol. 1-2; Benichou-Safar H. Les tombes puniques de Carthage. R., 1982; Lancel S. Carthage. R., 1992.

Today we will talk about the once powerful and richest city - Carthage. Now only picturesque ruins remain of it. Today, Carthage is also a revered city; for example, the residence of the President of Tunisia is located here. However, only memories remain of its former glory. Today, a photo of Carthage in Tunisia is available in all tourist brochures of this country. Therefore, we offer a closer look at this ancient city, its history, culture and location.

Carthage (Tunisia): history

According to legend, this city was founded by the Tyrian princess Elissa, who was forced to flee from her native places after a palace coup. It happened in 814 BC. Elissa and her supporters sailed the sea for a long time until they reached the African coast, where they landed on land in the Gulf of Tunis. The locals were very happy with the foreigners, who brought with them a lot of amazing goods. The fugitive queen wanted to buy a plot of land equal in area to the size of an oxhide. The local leader was very surprised at this proposal and made fun of Elissa for a long time. He was sure that all her people would never be able to fit in such a small space, but he nevertheless agreed to the deal. The next night, Elissa ordered to cut the skin of an ox into thin strips and enclose a fairly large piece of land with them, thus marking her new possessions. It was in this way that the city of Carthage in Tunisia was founded. It is no coincidence that the citadel built in its center is called Birsa, which means “skin” in translation.

By the III century BC, Carthage (Tunisia) became the largest state in the western Mediterranean. Its geographical location allowed it to control all the ships passing by. The Carthaginians were very businesslike, resourceful and warlike. They surrounded themselves with a high fortress wall, and along with the merchant fleet, they also created their own navy, numbering more than two hundred ships. Thus, Carthage turned out to be impregnable both from land and from the sea.

Carthage was not ruled by the Senate, where the best people of their time were elected, as in Rome. Here, all decisions were made by the plebs, that is, the people. However, some scholars are sure that in fact in Carthage the oligarchy (a group of the richest citizens) ruled everything. Be that as it may, along with Rome, this city was the most cultural and developed at that time.

The Carthaginians actively sailed to other countries and subjugated a number of lands in southern Spain, North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. At first they were on good terms with Rome. Both states supported each other in military operations. However, friction soon arose between them over the possession of Sicily, as a result of which the First Punic War began in 264 BC. Military operations went on with varying success. However, in the end, the Carthaginians were defeated. However, they were a stubborn people and were able to recover. This was followed by two more which eventually ended in complete victory for the Romans. So the call of a Roman statesman named Mark Porcius Cato came true, who ended each of his speeches with a phrase that later became winged: “Carthage must be destroyed!” The wars of the Roman Empire destroyed the half-million city. The surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, and the ruins of Carthage were sprinkled with salt so that no one would have a desire to settle here. However, after some time, the Romans regretted the complete destruction of the city, because it was possible to get by only with the elimination of its army. Eventually they began to rebuild and repopulate Carthage. The city after some time became the main center of Africa.

In the 2nd century AD, the Carthaginians adopted Christianity. In the VI century, along with the collapse of the Roman Empire, this once majestic city also fell into decay. After only a hundred years, it was captured by the Arabs. The remains of local structures were used by the new rulers of Carthage to build a new city - Tunisia. Today Carthage is a suburb of Tunisia. And due to its greatest historical value, it was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Carthage (Tunisia): description and geographical location

So, today this city is one of the main ones. Few tourists who find themselves in this region deprive themselves of the opportunity to touch the ancient history of the once great empires. Carthage on the map of Tunisia is not difficult to find. It is located in the northern part of this state on the shores of the Gulf of Tunis, which is part of the Mediterranean Sea.

Carthage Hotels

The number of rooms in this settlement can be called modest. This is due to the fact that Carthage is a unique place, there is no possibility of building hotels. The only option for travelers who definitely want to stay here is the five-star Villa Didon Hotel with 20 rooms. If you are looking for a more budget option, then it makes sense to choose a hotel in the city of Tunisia or Gammarth.

Excursions

One of the must-see places in Carthage is the Baths of Antoninus. In their size, they were second only to the Roman counterpart. Today, little remains of its former grandeur, but you can appreciate the scale of the building by looking at their model erected here. Not a single excursion to Carthage (Tunisia), as a rule, is complete without a visit to Tophet, which is an open-air burial altar. Here the Phoenicians sacrificed their firstborn in order to appease the gods. In addition, it is worth taking a look at the Roman amphitheater, which accommodated 36 thousand spectators, the remains of a huge aqueduct, as well as the Maalga water cisterns.

shopping

In addition to the standard souvenirs for any country in the form of magnets, key rings, postcards, etc., here merchants offer tourists items that supposedly have historical value: coins, mosaics, pieces of steles and columns, etc. You should not fall for this fishing rod. You can buy such things only as a souvenir, but do not hesitate to bargain.

Cafes and restaurants

On both sides of Habib Bourguiba Avenue, which runs along the coastline, there are a whole host of cafes where you can quench your thirst with cool juice or have lunch. If you want to pamper both your stomach and eyes, then visit the restaurant in the five-star Villa Dido Hotel, which offers stunning views of the whole of Carthage.

Ancient Carthage was founded in 814 BC. colonists from the Phoenician city of Fez. According to ancient legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who was forced to flee from Fes after her brother Pygmalion, the king of Tyre, killed her husband Sychey in order to take possession of his wealth.

Its name in Phoenician "Kart-Hadasht" means "New City" in translation, perhaps in contrast to the more ancient colony of Utica.

According to another legend about the founding of the city, Elissa was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox-skin would cover. She acted quite cunningly - taking possession of a large plot of land, cutting the skin into narrow belts. Therefore, the citadel erected on this site became known as Birsa (meaning "skin").

Carthage was originally a small city, not much different from other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean, in addition to the essential fact that it was not part of the Tyrian state, although it retained spiritual ties with the metropolis.

The city's economy was based primarily on intermediary trade. The craft was poorly developed and, in terms of its main technical and aesthetic characteristics, did not differ from the eastern one. Agriculture was non-existent. The Carthaginians did not then have possessions outside the narrow space of the city itself, and for the land on which the city stood, they had to pay tribute to the local population. The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy, and the founder of the city was at the head of the state. With her death, probably the only member of the royal family who was in Carthage disappeared. As a result, a republic was established in Carthage, and power passed to the ten "princeps" who had previously surrounded the queen.

Territorial expansion of Carthage

Terracotta mask. III-II centuries. BC. Carthage.

In the first half of the 7th c. BC. a new stage in the history of Carthage begins. It is possible that many new settlers from the metropolis moved there because of the fear of the Assyrian invasion, and this led to the expansion of the city attested by archeology. This strengthened it and made it possible to move on to more active trade - in particular, Carthage replaces Phenicia proper in trade with Etruria. All this leads to significant changes in Carthage, the outward expression of which is the change in the forms of ceramics, the revival of the old Canaanite traditions already left in the East, the emergence of new, original forms of artistic and handicraft products.

Already at the beginning of the second stage of its history, Carthage becomes such a significant city that it can begin its own colonization. The first colony was bred by the Carthaginians around the middle of the 7th century. BC. on the island of Ebes off the east coast of Spain. Apparently, the Carthaginians did not want to oppose the interests of the metropolis in southern Spain and were looking for workarounds to Spanish silver and tin. However, Carthaginian activity in the area soon stumbled upon the rivalry of the Greeks, who settled at the beginning of the 6th century. BC. in southern Gaul and eastern Spain. The first round of the Carthaginian-Greek wars remained with the Greeks, who, although they did not oust the Carthaginians from Ebes, managed to paralyze this important point.

Failure in the extreme west of the Mediterranean forced the Carthaginians to turn to its center. They established a number of colonies to the east and west of their city and subjugated the old Phoenician colonies in Africa. Having strengthened, the Carthaginians could no longer tolerate such a situation that they paid tribute to the Libyans for their own territory. An attempt to get rid of tribute is associated with the name of the commander Malchus, who, having won victories in Africa, freed Carthage from tribute.

Somewhat later, in the 60-50s of the VI century. BC, the same Malchus fought in Sicily, which apparently resulted in the subjugation of the Phoenician colonies on the island. And after the victories in Sicily, Malchus crossed over to Sardinia, but was defeated there. This defeat was for the Carthaginian oligarchs, who were afraid of the too victorious commander, a reason to sentence him to exile. In response, Malchus returned to Carthage and seized power. However, he was soon defeated and executed. Magon took the leading place in the state.

Mago and his successors had to solve difficult problems. To the west of Italy, the Greeks established themselves, threatening the interests of both the Carthaginians and some Etruscan cities. With one of these cities - Caere, Carthage was in especially close economic and cultural contacts. In the middle of the 5th century BC. the Carthaginians and Ceretans entered into an alliance against the Greeks who settled in Corsica. Around 535 BC At the Battle of Alalia, the Greeks defeated the combined Carthaginian-Ceretian fleet, but suffered such heavy losses that they were forced to leave Corsica. The Battle of Alalia contributed to a clearer distribution of spheres of influence in the center of the Mediterranean. Sardinia was included in the Carthaginian sphere, which was confirmed by the treaty between Carthage and Rome in 509 BC. However, the Carthaginians could not completely capture Sardinia. A whole system of fortresses, ramparts and ditches separated their possessions from the territory of the free Sardis.

The Carthaginians, led by rulers and commanders from the Magonid family, waged a stubborn struggle on all fronts: in Africa, Spain and Sicily. In Africa, they subjugated all the Phoenician colonies located there, including ancient Utica, which did not want to become part of their power for a long time, waged war with the Greek colony Cyrene, located between Carthage and Egypt, repulsed the attempt of the Spartan prince Doriay to establish himself east of Carthage and ousted the Greeks from the emerging there were their cities to the west of the capital. They launched an offensive against the local tribes. In a stubborn struggle, the Magonids managed to subdue them. Part of the conquered territory was directly subordinated to Carthage, forming its agricultural territory - the chorus. The other part was left to the Libyans, but subjected to the strict control of the Carthaginians, and the Libyans had to pay heavy taxes to their masters and serve in their army. The heavy Carthaginian yoke more than once caused powerful uprisings of the Libyans.

Phoenician comb ring. Carthage. Gold. 6th-5th centuries BC.

Spain at the end of the 6th century BC. the Carthaginians took advantage of the attack of the Tartessians on Hades in order to intervene in the affairs of the Iberian Peninsula under the pretext of protecting their half-blooded city. They captured Hades, who did not want to peacefully submit to his "savior", followed by the collapse of the Tartessian state. Carthaginians at the beginning of the 5th century. BC. established control over its remains. However, an attempt to extend it to Southeastern Spain met with determined resistance from the Greeks. At the naval Battle of Artemisia, the Carthaginians were defeated and forced to abandon their attempt. But the strait at the Pillars of Hercules remained under their rule.

At the end of the VI - the beginning of the V century. BC. Sicily became the scene of a fierce Carthaginian-Greek battle. Failed in Africa, Doriay decided to establish himself in the west of Sicily, but was defeated by the Carthaginians and killed.

His death was the reason for the war with Carthage for the Syracusan tyrant Gelon. In 480 BC the Carthaginians, having entered into an alliance with Xerxes, who was advancing at that time on Balkan Greece, and taking advantage of the difficult political situation in Sicily, where part of the Greek cities opposed Syracuse and went to an alliance with Carthage, launched an attack on the Greek part of the island. But in a fierce battle at Himera, they were utterly defeated, and their commander Hamilcar, the son of Mago, died. As a result, the Carthaginians could hardly hold out in the previously captured small part of Sicily.

The Magonids also attempted to establish themselves on the Atlantic shores of Africa and Europe. To this end, in the first half of the 5th c. BC. two expeditions were undertaken:

1. in a southerly direction under the leadership of Hanno,
2. in the north headed by Himilcon.

So in the middle of the 5th c. BC. the Carthaginian state was formed, which at that time became the largest and one of the strongest states in the Western Mediterranean. Its members included -

• the northern coast of Africa to the west of Greek Cyrenaica and a number of inland territories of this mainland, as well as a small part of the Atlantic coast immediately south of the Pillars of Hercules;
• the southwestern part of Spain and a large part of the Balearic Islands off the eastern coast of this country;
• Sardinia (actually only part of it);
• Phoenician cities in western Sicily;
• islands between Sicily and Africa.

The internal situation of the Carthaginian state

Position of cities, allies and subjects of Carthage

The supreme god of the Carthaginians is Baal Hammon. Terracotta. 1st century AD Carthage.

This power was a complex phenomenon. Its core was Carthage itself with the territory directly subordinated to it - the hora. Hora was located directly outside the walls of the city and was divided into separate territorial districts, managed by a special official, each district included several communities.

With the expansion of the Carthaginian state, non-African possessions were sometimes included in the chorus, as part of Sardinia captured by the Carthaginians. Another component of the state was the Carthaginian colonies, which supervised the surrounding lands, were in some cases centers of trade and crafts, and served as a reservoir for absorbing the "surplus" of the population. They had certain rights, but were under the control of a special resident sent from the capital.

The structure of the state included the old colonies of Tyre. Some of them (Hades, Utica, Kossura) were officially considered equal with the capital, others legally occupied a lower position. But the official position and true role in the power of these cities did not always coincide. So, Utica was practically completely subordinate to Carthage (which later led more than once to the fact that this city, under favorable conditions for it, took an anti-Carthaginian position), and the legally inferior cities of Sicily, in whose loyalty the Carthaginians were especially interested, enjoyed significant privileges.

The structure of the state included tribes and cities that were under the allegiance of Carthage. These were the Libyans outside the choirs and the subordinate tribes of Sardinia and Spain. They, too, were in a different position. The Carthaginians did not interfere unnecessarily in their internal affairs, limiting themselves to taking hostages, recruiting for military service and rather heavy taxes.

The Carthaginians also ruled over the "allies". Those managed independently, but were deprived of a foreign policy initiative and had to supply contingents to the Carthaginian army. Their attempt to evade submission to the Carthaginians was seen as a rebellion. Tax was also imposed on some of them, their loyalty was ensured by hostages. But the farther from the borders of the state, the more independent the local kings, dynasts and tribes became. A grid of territorial divisions was superimposed on this entire complex conglomeration of cities, peoples and tribes.

Economy and social structure

The creation of the state led to significant changes in the economic and social structure of Carthage. With the advent of land holdings, where the estates of aristocrats were located, diverse agriculture began to develop in Carthage. It gave even more products to the Carthaginian merchants (however, often the merchants themselves were wealthy landowners), and this stimulated the further growth of Carthaginian trade. Carthage becomes one of the largest trading centers in the Mediterranean.

A large number of subordinate population appeared, located at different levels of the social ladder. At the very top of this ladder stood the Carthaginian slave-owning aristocracy, which constituted the top of the Carthaginian citizenship - the "people of Carthage", and at the very bottom - the slaves and groups of the dependent population close to them. Between these extremes there was a whole gamut of foreigners, "meteks", the so-called "Sidonian husbands" and other categories of an inferior, semi-dependent and dependent population, including residents of subordinate territories.

There was a counterposition of Carthaginian citizenship to the rest of the population of the state, including slaves. The civil collective itself consisted of two groups -

1. aristocrats, or "powerful ones", and
2. "small", i.e. plebs.

Despite the division into two groups, citizens acted together as a close-knit natural association of oppressors, interested in the exploitation of all other inhabitants of the state.

The system of property and power in Carthage

The material basis of the civil collective was communal property, which acted in two forms: the property of the entire community (for example, an arsenal, shipyards, etc.) and the property of individual citizens (land, workshops, shops, ships, except for state ones, especially military ones, etc.). d.). Apart from communal property, there was no other sector. Even the property of the temples was placed under the control of the community.

Priestess sarcophagus. Marble. 4th-3rd centuries BC. Carthage.

In theory, the civil collective also possessed all the fullness of state power. We do not know exactly what positions were occupied by Malchus, who seized power, and the Magonids who came after him to rule the state (sources in this regard are very contradictory). In fact, their position seems to have resembled that of the Greek tyrants. Under the leadership of the Magonids, the Carthaginian state was actually created. But then it seemed to the Carthaginian aristocrats that this family had become "difficult for the freedom of the state", and the grandchildren of Mago were expelled. The expulsion of the Magonids in the middle of the 5th century. BC. led to the establishment of a republican form of government.

The supreme power in the republic, at least officially, and at critical moments actually, belonged to the people's assembly, which embodied the sovereign will of the civil collective. In fact, the leadership was carried out by oligarchic councils and magistrates elected from among the wealthy and noble citizens, primarily two sufets, in whose hands the executive power was for a year.

The people could intervene in the affairs of government only in the event of disagreements among the rulers, which arose during periods of political crises. The people also had the right to choose, although very limited, councilors and magistrates. In addition, the “people of Carthage” were tamed in every possible way by the aristocrats, who gave him a share of the benefits from the existence of the state: not only the “powerful”, but also the “small” profited from the sea and trade power of Carthage, people sent for supervision were recruited from the “plebs”. over subordinate communities and tribes, participation in wars gave a certain benefit, because in the presence of a significant mercenary army, citizens were still not completely separated from military service, they were also represented at various levels of the land army, from privates to commander, and especially in the navy.

Thus, a self-sufficient civil collective was formed in Carthage, possessing sovereign power and based on communal property, next to which there was neither royal power standing above citizenship, nor a non-communal sector in the socio-economic plan. Therefore, we can say that a policy arose here, i.e. this form of economic, social and political organization of citizens, which is characteristic of the ancient version of the ancient society. Comparing the situation in Carthage with the situation in the metropolis, it should be noted that the cities of Phoenicia itself, with all the development of the commodity economy, remained within the eastern version of the development of the ancient society, and Carthage became an ancient state.

The formation of the Carthaginian policy and the formation of the state were the main content of the second stage of the history of Carthage. The Carthaginian state arose in the course of a fierce struggle between the Carthaginians, both with the local population and with the Greeks. The wars against the latter had a pronounced imperialist character, for they were waged for the seizure and exploitation of foreign territories and peoples.

Rise of Carthage

From the second half of the 5th c. BC. the third stage of Carthaginian history begins. The state had already been created, and now it was about its expansion and attempts to establish hegemony in the Western Mediterranean. The main obstacle to this initially were all the same Western Greeks. In 409 BC the Carthaginian commander Hannibal landed in Motia, and a new round of wars began in Sicily, which continued intermittently for more than a century and a half.

Gilded bronze cuirass. III-II centuries. BC. Carthage.

Initially, success leaned towards Carthage. The Carthaginians subjugated the Elims and Sikans who lived in the west of Sicily and launched an offensive against Syracuse, the most powerful Greek city on the island and the most implacable opponent of Carthage. In 406, the Carthaginians besieged Syracuse, and the plague that had just begun in the Carthaginian camp saved the Syracusans. Peace 405 BC secured the western part of Sicily for Carthage. True, this success turned out to be fragile, and the border between Carthaginian and Greek Sicily always remained pulsating, moving either east or west as one side or another succeeded.

The failures of the Carthaginian army almost immediately responded with an aggravation of internal contradictions in Carthage, including powerful uprisings of Libyans and slaves. End of the 5th - first half of the 4th c. BC. were a time of sharp clashes within citizenship, both between individual groups of aristocrats, and, apparently, between the “plebs” involved in these clashes and aristocratic groups. At the same time, the slaves rose up against the masters, and the subject peoples against the Carthaginians. And only with calm within the state, the Carthaginian government was able in the middle of the 4th century. BC. resume outward expansion.

Then the Carthaginians established control over the southeast of Spain, which they unsuccessfully tried to do a century and a half ago. In Sicily, they launched a new offensive against the Greeks and achieved a number of successes, again finding themselves under the walls of Syracuse and even capturing their port. The Syracusans were forced to seek help from their metropolis of Corinth, and an army arrived from there, led by a capable commander, Timoleon. The commander of the Carthaginian troops in Sicily, Hanno, failed to prevent the landing of Timoleon and was recalled to Africa, and his successor was defeated and cleared the Syracusan harbor. Gannon, returning to Carthage, decided to use the situation that had arisen in connection with this and seize power. After the failure of the coup, he fled the city, armed 20,000 slaves, and called the Libyans and Moors to arms. The rebellion was defeated, Hanno, along with all his relatives, was executed, and only one of his son Gisgon managed to escape death and was expelled from Carthage.

However, the turn of affairs in Sicily soon forced the Carthaginian government to turn to Gisgona. The Carthaginians were severely defeated by Timoleon, and then a new army was sent there, led by Gisgon. Gisgon entered into an alliance with some tyrants of the Greek cities of the island and defeated individual detachments of Timoleon's army. This allowed in 339 BC. to conclude a peace that was relatively advantageous for Carthage, according to which he retained his possessions in Sicily. After these events, the Hannonid family became the most influential in Carthage for a long time, although there could be no talk of any tyranny, as was the case with the Magonids.

Wars with the Greeks of Syracuse went on as usual and with varying success. At the end of the IV century. BC. the Greeks even landed in Africa, threatening Carthage directly. The Carthaginian commander Bomilcar decided to seize the opportunity and seize power. But the citizens opposed him, crushing the rebellion. And soon the Greeks were repulsed from the Carthaginian walls and returned to Sicily. The attempt of the Epirus king Pyrrhus to oust the Carthaginians from Sicily in the 70s was also unsuccessful. 3rd century BC. All these endless and tedious wars showed that neither the Carthaginians nor the Greeks had the strength to take Sicily from each other.

The emergence of a new rival - Rome

The situation changed in the 60s. 3rd century BC, when a new predator intervened in this fight - Rome. In 264 the first war broke out between Carthage and Rome. In 241 it ended with the complete loss of Sicily.

This outcome of the war exacerbated the contradictions in Carthage and gave rise to an acute internal crisis there. Its most striking manifestation was a powerful uprising, in which hired soldiers took part, dissatisfied with the non-payment of the money due to them, the local population, who sought to throw off the heavy Carthaginian oppression, slaves who hated their masters. The uprising unfolded in the immediate vicinity of Carthage, probably also covering Sardinia and Spain. The fate of Carthage hung in the balance. With great difficulty and at the cost of incredible cruelty, Hamilcar, who had become famous in Sicily, managed to suppress this uprising, and then went to Spain, continuing to "pacify" the Carthaginian possessions. They had to say goodbye to Sardinia, yielding it to Rome, which threatened a new war.

The second aspect of the crisis was the growing role of citizenship. The rank and file, who in theory held sovereign power, now sought to turn theory into practice. A democratic "party" emerged, led by Hasdrubal. A split also occurred among the oligarchy, in which two groups emerged.

1. One was headed by Gannon from the influential Hannonid family - they stood for a cautious and peaceful policy that excluded a new conflict with Rome;
2. and the other - Hamilcar, representing the Barkid family (nicknamed Hamilcar - Barca, literally, "lightning") - they were for an active one, with the goal of taking revenge from the Romans.

Rise of the Barkids and war with Rome

Presumably a bust of Hannibal Barca. Found in Capua in 1932.

Wide circles of citizenship were also interested in revenge, for which the influx of wealth from subordinate lands and from the monopoly of maritime trade was beneficial. Therefore, an alliance arose between the Barkids and the Democrats, sealed by the marriage of Hasdrubal to the daughter of Hamilcar. Relying on the support of democracy, Hamilcar managed to overcome the intrigues of enemies and go to Spain. In Spain, Hamilcar and his successors from the Barcid family, including his son-in-law Hasdrubal, greatly expanded the Carthaginian possessions.

After the overthrow of the Magonids, the ruling circles of Carthage did not allow the unification of military and civil functions in one hand. However, during the war with Rome, they began to practice similar practices following the example of the Hellenistic states, but not at the national level, as was the case under the Magonides, but at the local level. Such was the power of the Barkids in Spain. But the Barkids exercised their powers in the Iberian Peninsula independently. A strong reliance on the army, close ties with democratic circles in Carthage itself, and the special relationship that the Barkids established with the local population contributed to the emergence in Spain of a semi-independent power of the Barkids, essentially of a Hellenistic type.

Already Hamilcar considered Spain as a springboard for a new war with Rome. His son Hannibal in 218 BC provoked this war. The Second Punic War began. Hannibal himself went to Italy, leaving his brother in Spain. Military operations unfolded on several fronts, and the Carthaginian commanders (especially Hannibal) won a number of victories. But victory in the war remained with Rome.

Peace 201 BC deprived Carthage of the navy, all non-African possessions and forced the Carthaginians to recognize the independence of Numidia in Africa, the king of which the Carthaginians had to return all the possessions of his ancestors (this article laid a “time bomb” under Carthage), and the Carthaginians themselves did not have the right to wage war without permission Rome. This war not only deprived Carthage of the position of a great power, but also significantly limited its sovereignty. The third stage of Carthaginian history, which began with such happy omens, ended with the bankruptcy of the Carthaginian aristocracy that had ruled the republic for so long.

Internal position

At this stage, a radical transformation of the economic, social and political life of Carthage did not occur. But certain changes did take place. In the IV century. BC. Carthage began to mint its own coin. A certain Hellenization of a part of the Carthaginian aristocracy takes place, and two cultures arise in the Carthaginian society, as is typical for the Hellenistic world. As in the Hellenistic states, in a number of cases civil and military power is concentrated in the same hands. In Spain, a semi-independent power of the Barkids arose, the heads of which felt their kinship with the then rulers of the Middle East and where a system of relations between the conquerors and the local population appeared, similar to that existing in the Hellenistic states.

Carthage had considerable expanses of land suitable for cultivation. In contrast to other Phoenician city-states, large-scale agricultural plantation farms developed on a large scale in Carthage, where the labor of numerous slaves was exploited. The plantation economy of Carthage played a very important role in the economic history of the ancient world, since it influenced the development of the same type of slave economy, first in Sicily, and then in Italy.

In the VI century. BC. or maybe in the 5th century. BC. in Carthage lived the writer-theorist of the plantation slave economy Magon, whose great work enjoyed such fame that the Roman army besieging Carthage in the middle of the 2nd century. BC, an order was given to preserve this work. And he was really saved. By order of the Roman Senate, Mago's work was translated from Phoenician into Latin, and then was used by all the theorists of agriculture in Rome. For their plantation economy, for craft workshops and for their galleys, the Carthaginians needed a huge number of slaves, selected by them from among the prisoners of war and bought.

Sunset of Carthage

The defeat in the second war with Rome opened the last stage of Carthaginian history. Carthage lost its power, and its possessions were reduced to a small district near the city itself. Opportunities to exploit the non-Carthaginian population disappeared. Large groups of dependent and semi-dependent populations got out of control of the Carthaginian aristocracy. The agricultural area was drastically reduced, and trade again assumed predominating importance.

Glass vessels for ointments and balms. OK. 200 BC

If earlier not only the nobility, but also the "plebs" received certain benefits from the existence of the state, now they have disappeared. This, of course, caused an acute social and political crisis, which has now gone beyond the existing institutions.

In 195 BC Hannibal, having become a Sufet, carried out a reform of the state system, which dealt a blow to the very foundations of the former system with its dominance of the aristocracy and opened the way to practical power, on the one hand, for wide sections of the civilian population, and on the other, for demagogues who could take advantage of the movement of these layers. Under these conditions, a fierce political struggle unfolded in Carthage, reflecting sharp contradictions within the civil collective. First, the Carthaginian oligarchy managed to take revenge, with the help of the Romans, forcing Hannibal to flee without completing the work he had begun. But the oligarchs could not keep their power intact.

By the middle of the II century. BC. Three political factions fought in Carthage. In the course of this struggle, Hasdrubal, who led the anti-Roman group, became the leading figure, and his position led to the establishment of a regime of the type of Greek junior tyranny. The rise of Hasdrubal frightened the Romans. In 149 BC. Rome began a third war with Carthage. This time, for the Carthaginians, it was no longer about domination over certain subjects and not about hegemony, but about their own life and death. The war was practically reduced to the siege of Carthage. Despite the heroic resistance of the citizens, in 146 BC. the city fell and was destroyed. Most of the citizens died in the war, and the rest were taken into slavery by the Romans. The history of Phoenician Carthage ended.

The history of Carthage shows the process of transformation of an eastern city into an ancient state, the formation of a policy. And having become a policy, Carthage also survived the crisis of this form of organization of ancient society. At the same time, it must be emphasized that we do not know what the way out of the crisis could be here, since the natural course of events was interrupted by Rome, which dealt a fatal blow to Carthage. The Phoenician cities of the metropolis, which developed in different historical conditions, remained within the framework of the eastern version of the ancient world and, having become part of the Hellenistic states, they already switched to a new historical path as part of them.

CARTHAGE
an ancient city (near modern Tunisia) and a state that existed in the 7th-2nd centuries. BC. in the western Mediterranean. Carthage (meaning "new city" in Phoenician) was founded by people from Phoenician Tyre (traditional founding date 814 BC, actually founded somewhat later, perhaps around 750 BC). The Romans called it Carthago, the Greeks - Carchedon. According to legend, Carthage was founded by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tyre after her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, killed her husband Syche to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the inhabitants of the city were famous for their business acumen. According to the legend of the founding of the city, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as an ox-skin would cover, took possession of a large area by cutting the skin into narrow belts. That is why the citadel put on this place was called Birsa (which means "skin"). Carthage was not the oldest of the Phoenician colonies. Long before him, Utica was founded a little to the north (traditional date - c. 1100 BC). Probably around the same time, Hadrumet and Leptis were founded, located on the east coast of Tunisia to the south, Hippo on the north coast and Lyx on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco. Long before the founding of the Phoenician colonies, ships from Egypt, Mycenaean Greece and Crete plowed the Mediterranean. The political and military failures of these powers from about 1200 B.C. provided the Phoenicians with freedom of action in the Mediterranean and an opportunity to acquire skills in navigation and trade. From 1100 to 800 BC the Phoenicians actually dominated the sea, where only rare Greek ships dared to go. The Phoenicians explored the lands in the west up to the Atlantic coast of Africa and Europe, which later came in handy for Carthage.

CITY AND STATE
Carthage owned fertile lands inland, it had a favorable geographical position that favored trade, and also allowed control of the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further west. Compared with many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. the Romans methodically destroyed the city, and in the Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC, intensive construction was carried out. Based on the scanty evidence of ancient authors and their often obscure topographic indications, we know that the city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was heavily fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. In the quarter called Megara, there were many vegetable gardens, orchards and winding canals. Ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading, up to 220 ships could be pulled ashore at the same time (the ancient ships should have been kept on land if possible). Behind the trading harbor there was a military harbor and an arsenal.
Government system. According to its state structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that in their homeland, in Phoenicia, the power belonged to the kings and the founder of Carthage, according to legend, was Queen Dido, we know almost nothing about royal power here. The ancient authors, who for the most part admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the state system of Sparta and Rome. The power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finance, foreign policy, the declaration of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected suffet magistrates (the Romans called them sufetes, the same position as "shofetim", i.e. judges, in the Old Testament). Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civil, not involving control over the army. Together with the commanders of the army, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same positions were established in the cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural lands, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving a high social position. Trade was considered quite a respectable occupation, and the wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect. Nevertheless, some aristocrats from time to time actively opposed the dominance of merchants, such as Hanno the Great in the 3rd century BC. BC.
Regions and cities. The agricultural regions in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians proper - approximately correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands also fell under the authority of the city. When the ancient authors speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they certainly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies here - Utica, Leptis, Hadrumet, etc. Information about the relations of Carthage with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage managed (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean. Carthaginian power was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was located more than 300 km east of Ei (modern Tripoli). Between it and the Atlantic Ocean, the ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities were discovered. Around 500 BC or a little later, the navigator Hanno led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors. The colonies and trading posts were for the most part located at a distance of about one day's sail from each other. Usually they were on islands near the coast, on capes, in the mouths of rivers, or in those places on the mainland of the country, from where it was easy to get to the sea. For example, Leptis, located near modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final seaside point of the great caravan route from the interior, from where merchants brought slaves and golden dust. This trade probably began in the early stages of Carthage's history. The power consisted of Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought the Sicilian Greeks for centuries, under its rule were Lilibei and other well-fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, at various periods, other areas on the island (it happened that almost all of Sicily was in its hands, except Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage also established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were denied access to the island. At the beginning of the 5th c. BC. The Carthaginians began to explore Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks entrenched themselves on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before the campaign of Hannibal in Italy, great success was achieved in subjugating the interior regions of Spain. Apparently, when creating their power scattered over different territories, Carthage did not set other goals than establishing control over them for the sake of obtaining the maximum possible profit.
CARTHAGE CIVILIZATION
Agriculture. The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. Of the grain crops, wheat and barley were the most important. Some grain was probably delivered from Sicily and Sardinia. The wine produced for sale was of average quality. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported higher quality wines from Greece or from the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine, even special laws against drunkenness were passed, for example, prohibiting the use of wine by soldiers. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, although of poor quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors mention vegetables such as cabbage, peas and artichokes. Horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred in Carthage. The Numidians, who lived to the west, on the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Apparently, the Carthaginians, who had strong trade ties with the Numidians, bought horses from them. Later, the gourmets of Imperial Rome highly valued poultry from Africa. Unlike republican Rome, in Carthage small farmers did not form the backbone of society. Most of the African possessions of Carthage were divided among the wealthy Carthaginians, whose large estates were managed on a scientific basis. A certain Magon, who probably lived in the 3rd c. BC, wrote a manual on farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wishing to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered that this manual be translated into Latin. Excerpts from the work, cited in Roman sources, indicate that Magon used the Greek manuals on agriculture, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and dealt with all aspects of agricultural production. Probably, as tenants, or sharecroppers, local residents worked - Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves under the leadership of overseers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably suggested specialization: the more hilly areas were set aside for orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.
Craft. Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly reproducing Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and destined for marketing in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage captured all the markets. The production of luxury goods, such as the bright purple paint commonly known as "Tyrian purple", is known in the later period when the Romans ruled North Africa, but it can be considered that it existed before the fall of Carthage. The purple snail, a sea snail containing this dye, was best harvested in autumn and winter - seasons not suitable for navigation. In Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex, permanent settlements were founded. In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner, using slave labor in arsenals, shipyards or construction. Archaeologists have not found evidence that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed in the western market closed to outsiders, while many small workshops were marked. It is often very difficult to distinguish Carthaginian products from items imported from Phoenicia or Greece among the finds. Craftsmen were successful in reproducing simple products, and it seems that the Carthaginians were not too eager to make anything other than copies. Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metal work. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the masters of Ancient Phenicia, who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metalworkers were invariably distinguished by a high level of skill. There is evidence of their skill in working iron and bronze. The number of ornaments found during excavations is small, but it seems that this people was not inclined to place expensive objects in tombs to please the souls of the dead. The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramic products. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns, filled with products that were intended for firing, were found. Every Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found everywhere in the areas that were part of the sphere of Carthage - in Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. Carthaginian pottery is also found from time to time on the coast of France and Northern Italy - where the Greeks from Massalia (modern B. Marseille) and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade. Archaeological finds paint a picture of a stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, goblets, pot-bellied jugs of various purposes, called amphorae, water jugs and lamps. Studies show that their production existed from ancient times until the death of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products for the most part reproduced Phoenician designs, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It seems that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians especially appreciated Greek products, which was manifested in the imitation of Greek ceramics and sculpture and the presence of a large number of Greek products of this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.
Trade policy. The Carthaginians were especially successful in trade. Carthage could well be called a trading state, since its policy was largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of his colonies and trading posts were no doubt founded for the purpose of expanding trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In an agreement concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was provided that Roman ships should not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing anywhere else in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, they immediately set sail. Carthage agreed to recognize the boundaries of Rome and respect its people, as well as its allies. The Carthaginians made agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force in order to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their fiefdom, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the coasts of Spain and Italy adjoining it. They also fought against piracy. The authorities kept in good repair the complex structures of the commercial harbor of Carthage, as well as its military harbor, which, apparently, was open to foreign ships, but few sailors entered there. It is striking that such a trading state as Carthage did not show due attention to coinage. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century BC. BC, when silver coins were issued, which, if the surviving specimens are considered typical, varied considerably in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coin of Athens and other states, and most transactions were made through direct barter.
Goods and trade routes. Specific data on the subjects of trade of Carthage are surprisingly scarce, although evidence of its trading interests is quite numerous. Typical among such evidence is the story of Herodotus about how trade took place on the western coast of Africa. The Carthaginians landed on the shore in a certain place and laid out the goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then local residents appeared and placed a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What these goods were is not mentioned in the story. Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple pottery for sale or exchange to those western regions where they were monopolists, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and plain glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some - in the Punic colonies. According to a number of accounts, Punic traders offered wine, women and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves. It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phoenicia, Greece, southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Findings of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships. Some references in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians brought various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory from Africa was highly valued. During the empire, a huge number of wild animals were brought from Roman North Africa for the device of games. Figs and honey are also mentioned. It is believed that Carthaginian ships sailed the Atlantic Ocean for tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have shipped some tin to other places where it was needed for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. Ropes for Punic warships were made from esparto grass, which grows in Spain and North Africa. An important article of trade, due to the high price, was purple dye from scarlet. In many areas, traders purchased wild animal skins and skins and found markets for their sale. As in later times, caravans from the south must have arrived at the ports of Leptis and Aea, as well as Gigtis, which lay somewhat to the west. They carried ostrich feathers, popular in antiquity, and eggs, which served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with ferocious faces and used, as they say, as masks to scare away demons. Caravans also brought ivory and slaves. But the most important cargo was gold dust from the Gold Coast or from Guinea. Some of the best goods the Carthaginians imported for their own use. Some of the pottery found in Carthage was brought from Greece or from Campagna in southern Italy, where it was made by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles from Rhodes amphoras found during the excavations of Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, high-quality Attic ceramics are not found here.
Language, art and religion. We know almost nothing about the culture of the Carthaginians. The only lengthy texts in their language that have come down to us are contained in the play by Plautus the Punic, where one of the characters, Hanno, delivers a monologue, apparently in the authentic Punic dialect, after which he immediately repeats a significant part of it in Latin. In addition, many replicas of the same Gannon are scattered around the play, also with a translation into Latin. Unfortunately, scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only from geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these fragments, the similarity of the Punic language with Hebrew is of great help. The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be attributed to the sphere of art, these people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes they copied not the best examples. As far as literature is concerned, we have no record of their producing any other writings than purely practical ones, such as Mago's agricultural manual, and one or two smaller Greek compilation texts. We are not aware of the presence in Carthage of something that could be called "belles-lettres." Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - the Semitic god, known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in the Aeneid called Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanit. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifice, which was especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is faith in the effectiveness of cult practice for communicating with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.
RELATIONS WITH OTHER PEOPLES
The oldest rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Hadrumet. It is not clear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.
Alliance with the Etruscans. The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, merchants and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. The main area of ​​their settlement was located directly north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - up to the point where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having entered into an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians - the Greeks who occupied Corsica. The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC the Romans drove them out of Rome and Latium. Soon after this, the Greeks of southern Italy, with the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. put an end to their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Cum in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a foothold in Sardinia.
Fight for Sicily. Even before the major defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had a chance to measure strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in western Sicily, founded at least no later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Theron in Acragas, clearly foreshadowed the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, similar to what happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared to conquer all of eastern Sicily. They acted in concert with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to a later tradition (no doubt erroneous), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in a land battle at Himera in Sicily took place in 480 BC. in the same day. Confirming the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Theron and Gelon put up irresistible forces. A long time passed before the Carthaginians again launched an offensive in Sicily. After Syracuse successfully repelled the Athenian invasion (415-413 BC), having utterly defeated them, they sought to subjugate other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to seek help from Carthage, who was not slow to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At that moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who based the power of Syracuse on cruel tyranny and fought against the Carthaginians with varying success for forty years. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. the Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing full control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity perpetrated by Dionysius were partly offset by the help that he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their struggle with Carthage. Persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who became the successor of his father. However, this again did not reach the goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of hostilities that did not allow talking about the advantage of any of the parties, peace was concluded. There is an opinion that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from the great campaign in India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other peoples, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps the untimely death of Alexander in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles. In 311 BC The Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. In Syracuse, the new tyrant Agathocles ruled. The Carthaginians had already laid siege to it in Syracuse and seemed to have the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles sailed from the harbor with an army and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, creating a threat to Carthage itself. From that moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. the usual war continued with varying success. In 278 BC the Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek commander Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the South Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself ("Pyrrhic victory"), he crossed to Sicily. There he pushed back the Carthaginians and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with his characteristic fatal inconstancy, he refused further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.
Wars with Rome. The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, Italian mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC some of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, the ruler of Syracuse, began to overcome them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians. The war went on for 24 years (264-241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and at first achieved some success, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures at sea caused by storms, as well as a series of defeats on land (the Carthaginian army in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle off the Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of Sicily. The war brought enormous damage and losses to both sides, while Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC a dangerous uprising broke out, dissatisfied with the delay in the money of the Carthaginian mercenaries, which was suppressed only in 238 BC. In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca traveled to Spain and began conquering the interior. To the Roman embassy, ​​who appeared with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay an indemnity to Rome as quickly as possible. The wealth of Spain - flora and fauna, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants - could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, a conflict broke out again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC Hannibal, the great Carthaginian commander, traveled overland from Spain through the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army, scoring several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the Battle of Cannae. Nevertheless, Rome did not sue for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of opposition in Italy, moved the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC). Carthage lost Spain and finally lost the position of a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans were afraid of the revival of Carthage. They say that Cato the Elder ended his speech in the Senate with the words "Delenda est Carthago" - "Carthage must be destroyed." In 149 BC exorbitant demands of Rome forced the weakened, but still wealthy North African state to enter the third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery and sprinkled the soil with salt. However, five centuries later, Punic was still spoken in some rural areas of North Africa, and Punic blood probably flowed in the veins of many people who lived there. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.
ROMAN CARTHAGE
Julius Caesar, who had a practical wrinkle, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it senseless to leave such an advantageous place unused in many respects. In 44 BC, 102 years after its death, the city began a new life. From the very beginning, it flourished as the administrative center and port of an area with rich agricultural production. This period in the history of Carthage lasted almost 750 years. Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the residence of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the view of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial landed estates, which constituted a significant part of the province, was also located here. Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its environs. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in his youth in Carthage, and later achieved such fame there thanks to his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Mark Cornelius Fronto, tutor of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Severus. The ancient Punic religion was preserved in a Romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno of Heaven, and the image of Baal merged with Kron (Saturn). Nevertheless, it was North Africa that became the stronghold of the Christian faith, and Carthage gained fame in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century Cyprian was Bishop of Carthage, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin learning in the empire; St. Augustine, in his Confession, gives us several vivid sketches of the life of students who attended the rhetorical school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century. However, Carthage remained only a major urban center and had no political significance. Do we listen to stories about the public executions of Christians, do we read about Tertullian's furious attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent worldly outfits, or do we find mention of some outstanding personalities who found themselves in Carthage at important moments in history, above the level of a large provincial city he never rises again. For some time there was the capital of the Vandals (429-533 AD), who, like once pirates, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. Then the Byzantines conquered this area, holding it until Carthage fell under the onslaught of the Arabs in 697.

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Carthage (Qart-ḥada(št)) is a Phoenician state with a capital in the city of the same name, which existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia.

Of particular interest to the Jews because of the Phoenician origin of its inhabitants, its rulers, called "suffets"(cf. Hebrew "שופטים" (judges)), and because of the religion of the inhabitants.

Origin of the name and mention in Jewish sources

Name Qart-ḥadašt(in Punic notation without vowels Qrtḥdst) is translated from the Phoenician language as "new city".

The name of the city in ancient Jewish documents

The city called קרת חדשת "("New City") in the original spelling, is mentioned in Jewish documents of Talmudic times only as " קרתגיני "("Ḳarthigini"), The name is equivalent to the Byzantine form Kaρθαγένη and according to Siriacus, the Greek form Kαρχηδών was introduced later.

Despite the peculiar form, perhaps chosen with reference to the founder of Dido (" קרתא " + γυνή , "City Woman"), the Hebrew word certainly defines Carthage in Africa, not Cartagena in Spain. Later Jewish chronicles, which place the founding of Carthage in the time of David, use the variant "Ḳarṭagena" "Ḳarṭigini" (with ט instead of ח , sometimes even in the Talmud, "David Hans" by 3882), "Ḳartini" and "Ḳartigni", sometimes adding the curious remark that the Talmud refers to two cities of Carthage, which, however, is erroneous.

Carthage in the books of Josephus

But widespread rabbinical legend identifies the land of the Amazons with Carthage (Lev. XXVII R.1) or with Africa (Tamid 32b), in both cases according to classical tradition.

Carthage was recognized as one of the four largest cities of the Roman Empire. Amora of the third century gave the following curious sentence: "From Tyre to Carthage, Israel and his "father in heaven" are known; from Tyre to the west and from Carthage to the east, Israel and his God are not known," which probably indicates an indication of the area of ​​\u200b\u200bdistribution of the Semitic race .

Story

Carthage was founded in 814 BC. e. colonists from the city of Tire on the site of the present city of Tunis. The location of the city (almost in the center of the Mediterranean Sea) made it the leader of the Mediterranean maritime trade.

Religion

The most infamous feature of Carthaginian religion was child sacrifice. According to Diodorus Siculus, in 310 BC. BC, during the attack of the city, in order to pacify Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. The Encyclopedia of Religion says: “The sacrifice of an innocent child as a sacrifice of atonement was the greatest act of propitiation for the gods. Apparently, this act was intended to ensure the well-being of both the family and society.”

In 1921, archaeologists discovered a place where several rows of urns were found with the charred remains of both animals (they were sacrificed instead of people) and small children. The place was named Tophet. The burials were under the steles, on which the requests accompanying the sacrifices were recorded.

It is estimated that the site contains the remains of over 20,000 children sacrificed in just 200 years. Today, some revisionists argue that the burial site was simply a graveyard for children who were stillborn or under the age to be buried in a necropolis. However, it cannot be said with complete certainty that people were not sacrificed in Carthage.

social system

The entire population, according to its rights, was divided into several groups according to ethnicity.

The Libyans were in the most difficult situation. The territory of Libya was divided into regions subordinate to the strategists, taxes were very high, their collection was accompanied by all sorts of abuses. This led to frequent uprisings, which were brutally suppressed. Libyans were forcibly recruited into the army - the reliability of such units, of course, was very low.

The Sicules - the Sicilian inhabitants - made up the other part of the population. Their rights in the field of political administration were limited by the "Sidon law" (its content is unknown). The Siculi, however, enjoyed freedom of trade.

Natives of the Phoenician cities annexed to Carthage enjoyed full civil rights, and the rest of the population (freedmen, settlers - in a word, not Phoenicians) was similar to the Siculs - "Sidon law".

Wealth of Carthage

Carthage created its trade network and developed it to an unprecedented size. He was mainly engaged in the import of metals. Carthage maintained its monopoly on trade through a powerful fleet and mercenary troops.

Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. Approximately 480 BC. e. navigator Himilcon landed in British Cornwall rich in tin.

And after 30 years, Hanno, a native of an influential Carthaginian family, led an expedition of 60 ships, on which there were 30,000 men and women. People were landed in different parts of the coast to establish new colonies. It is possible that, having sailed through the Strait of Gibraltar and along the African coast, Hanno reached the Gulf of Guinea and even the coast of Cameroon.

The enterprise and business acumen of its inhabitants helped Carthage become, admittedly, richest city in the ancient world. "At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. thanks to technology, fleet and trade ... the city moved to the forefront, "says the book" Carthage "(" Carthage "). The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: “Their power militarily became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian.”

military forces

The army of Carthage was mostly mercenary. The basis of the infantry were Spanish, African, Greek, Gallic mercenaries. The Carthaginian aristocracy served in the "sacred squad" - heavily armed cavalry. The mercenary cavalry consisted of the Numidians, who were considered the most skilled warriors in antiquity, and the Iberians.

In general, the composition of the Punic the army was similar to the armies of the Hellenistic states. At the head of the army was the commander-in-chief, elected by the council of elders, but by the end of the existence of the state, this election was also carried out by the army, which indicates monarchical tendencies.

Wars with Rome

In the III century BC. e. the interests of Carthage came into conflict with the intensified Roman Republic. Relations, previously allied, began to deteriorate. Finally, in 264 BC. e. The First Punic War began.

In 241 BC. e. Rome was able to field a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them, and after the defeat was forced to make peace.

The Carthaginian government made an attempt to reduce the pay of the mercenaries. They rebelled, which almost ended in the death of the country.

The apparent inability of the aristocratic government to effectively govern led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition, led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly gave him the powers of commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he transferred the fighting to Spain. For 16 years (236-220 BC), most of Spain was conquered and firmly tied to the metropolis.

A new war was fought in Italy in 218-202 BC. e. and ended with the defeat of Carthage.

The Third Punic War led to the destruction of Carthage and the capture by Rome of all other Phoenician colonies in Africa and Spain.

Rome in Africa

100 years after the destruction of Carthage, Julius Caesar decided to establish a colony on the site of the city. These plans were destined to come true only after his death. After some time, Carthage became "one of the most luxurious cities of the Roman world", the second largest city in the West after Rome.

Before the beginning of the 4th c. the standard of living of the Jews of Carthage was comparatively high. Many Jewish families belonged to the wealthiest sections of society. The Jews there were mainly engaged in commerce. The export of grain and olive oil from the African province of Propria was under the almost complete control of large Jewish shipowners who lived in Rome and were united in a corporation of naviculari.