Mill. History of invention and production. The evolution of grain grinding from ancient times to the end of the 19th century History of manual grain mills

The first tools for grinding grain into flour were a stone mortar and pestle. Some step forward in comparison with them was the method of grinding grain instead of crushing. People very soon became convinced that grinding flour turns out much better. However, it was also extremely tedious work.

The big improvement was the transition from moving the grater back and forth to rotation. The pestle was replaced by a flat stone that moved across a flat stone dish. It was already easy to move from a stone that grinds grain to a millstone, that is, to make one stone slide while rotating on another. Grain was gradually poured into the hole in the middle of the upper stone of the millstone, fell into the space between the upper and lower stones and was ground into flour.

This hand mill was most widely used in ancient Greece and Rome. Its design is very simple. The basis of the mill was a stone, convex in the middle. At its top was an iron pin.

The second, rotating stone had two bell-shaped recesses connected by a hole. Outwardly, it resembled an hourglass and was empty inside. This stone was planted on the base. A strip was inserted into the hole.

When the mill rotated, the grain, falling between the stones, was ground. Flour was collected at the base of the lower stone. Such mills were of various sizes: from small ones, like modern coffee grinders, to large ones, which were driven by two slaves or a donkey. With the invention of the hand mill, the process of grinding grain was facilitated, but still remained a laborious and difficult task. It is no coincidence that it was in the flour-grinding business that the first

history of a machine that worked without the use of the muscular strength of a person or animal. This is a water mill. But first, the ancient masters had to invent a water engine.

The ancient water-motors apparently developed from the watering machines of the Chadufons, with the help of which they raised water from the river to irrigate the banks. Chadufon was a series of scoops that were mounted on the rim of a large wheel with a horizontal axis. When the wheel was turned, the lower scoops sank into the water of the river, then rose to the top of the wheel and overturned into the chute.

At first, such wheels were rotated by hand, but where there is little water, and it runs quickly along a steep channel, the wheel began to be equipped with special blades. Under the pressure of the current, the wheel rotated and drew water itself. The result was a simple automatic pump that does not require the presence of a person for its operation. The invention of the water wheel was of great importance for the history of technology. For the first time, a person has at his disposal a reliable, versatile and very easy to manufacture engine.

It soon became apparent that the movement created by the water wheel could be used not only to pump water, but also for other needs, such as grinding grain. In flat areas, the speed of the flow of rivers is small in order to turn the wheel with the force of the impact of the jet. To create the necessary pressure, they began to dam the river, artificially raise the water level and direct the jet along the chute onto the wheel blades.

However, the invention of the engine immediately gave rise to another problem: how to transfer the movement from the water wheel to the device

which should do useful work for a person? For these purposes, a special transmission mechanism was needed, which could not only transmit, but also transform rotational motion. Solving this problem, the ancient mechanics again turned to the idea of ​​the wheel.

The simplest wheel drive works as follows. Imagine two wheels with parallel axes of rotation, which are in close contact with their rims. If now one of the wheels starts to rotate (it is called the leading one),

then, due to friction between the rims, the other (slave) will also begin to rotate. Moreover, the paths traversed by the points lying on their rims are equal. This is true for all wheel diameters.

Therefore, a larger wheel will make, in comparison with the smaller one associated with it, as many times fewer revolutions as its diameter exceeds the diameter of the latter. If we divide the diameter of one wheel by the diameter of the other, we get a number that is called the gear ratio of this wheel drive. Imagine a two-wheel transmission in which the diameter of one wheel is twice the diameter of the other.

If the larger wheel is driven, we can use this gear to double the speed, but at the same time, the torque will decrease by half. This combination of wheels will be convenient when it is important to get a higher speed at the exit than at the entrance. If, on the contrary, the smaller wheel is driven, we will lose output in speed, but the torque of this gear will double. This gear is useful where you need to "strengthen the movement" (for example, when lifting weights).

Thus, using a system of two wheels of different diameters, it is possible not only to transmit, but also to transform the movement. In real practice, gear wheels with a smooth rim are almost never used, since the couplings between them are not rigid enough, and the wheels slip. This drawback can be eliminated if gear wheels are used instead of smooth wheels.

The first wheel gears appeared about two thousand years ago, but they became widespread much later. The fact is that cutting teeth requires great precision. In order for the second wheel to rotate evenly, without jerks and stops, with uniform rotation of one wheel, the teeth must be given a special shape, in which the mutual movement of the wheels would be as if they were moving over each other without slipping, then the teeth of one wheel would fall into hollows of the other.

If the gap between the teeth of the wheels is too large, they will hit each other and quickly break off. If the gap is too small, the teeth cut into each other and crumble. The calculation and manufacture of gears was a difficult task for ancient mechanics, but they already appreciated their convenience. After all, various combinations of gears, as well as their connection with some other gears, provided enormous opportunities for transforming movement.

For example, after connecting a gear wheel to a screw, a worm gear was obtained that transmits rotation from one plane to another. Using bevel wheels, it is possible to transmit rotation at any angle to the plane of the drive wheel. By connecting the wheel to the toothed ruler, it is possible to convert rotational motion into translational, and vice versa, and by attaching a connecting rod to the wheel, a reciprocating motion is obtained. To calculate gears, they usually take the ratio not of the diameters of the wheels, but the ratio of the number of teeth of the driving and driven wheels. Often several wheels are used in the transmission. In this case, the gear ratio of the entire transmission will be equal to the product of the gear ratios of the individual pairs.

When all the difficulties associated with obtaining and transforming movement were successfully overcome, a water mill appeared. For the first time, its detailed structure was described by the ancient Roman mechanic and architect Vitruvius. The mill in the ancient era had three main components, interconnected into a single device:

1) a propulsion mechanism in the form of a vertical wheel with blades, rotated by water;

2) a transmission mechanism or transmission in the form of a second vertical gear; the second gear rotated the third horizontal gear - the pinion;

3) an actuator in the form of millstones, upper and lower, and the upper millstone was mounted on a vertical gear shaft, with the help of which it was set in motion. Grain poured from a funnel-shaped bucket over the top millstone.

The creation of a water mill is considered an important milestone in the history of technology. It became the first machine to be used in production, a kind of pinnacle reached by ancient mechanics, and the starting point for the technical search for Renaissance mechanics. Her invention was the first timid step towards machine production.

Millstone is one of the most ancient inventions of mankind. It is possible that it appeared even earlier than the wheel. What do millstones look like? What functions do they perform? And what is the principle of operation of this ancient mechanism? Let's figure it out!

Millstone - what is it?

According to scientists, our ancestors began to use this simple device in the Stone Age (10-3 millennium BC). What are millstones? This is a primitive mechanical device, consisting of two rounded blocks. Its main function is to grind grain and other vegetable products.

The word comes from the Old Slavonic "zhurnve". It can be translated as "heavy". The unit really could have a fairly solid weight. Millstones are mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years. In particular, the following phrase can be found in the annals:

“Krupyasche zhito and with his own hands izml”.

The word is often used in a figurative sense. Suffice it to recall such phrases as "millstones of war" or "millstones of history". In this context, these are cruel and fatal events in which a person or an entire nation can find themselves.

The image of millstones can be found in heraldry. For example, on the coat of arms of the small town of Höör, in southern Sweden.

A bit of history

In ancient times, people grinded grains, nuts, shoots, rhizomes in millstones, and also ground iron and dyes. Once they could be seen in almost every rural house. Over time, flour-grinding technologies improved, water mills appeared, and even later - windmills. Difficult and exhausting work was shifted to the shoulders of the forces of nature - wind and water. Although the basis of the work of any mill remained the same millstone principle.

Previously, in the villages there was a special caste of artisans who were engaged in the manufacture of millstones, as well as the repair of individual parts. During constant work, the millstones were worn away, their surfaces became smooth and ineffective. Therefore, they had to be sharpened periodically.

Today millstones are already history. Of course, few people today use these bulky units in everyday life. Therefore, they gather dust in museums and at various exhibitions, where curious tourists and lovers of antiquity can stare at them.

The design and principle of operation of millstones

The design of this mechanism is extremely simple. It consists of two round blocks of the same size, laid on top of each other. In this case, the lower circle is immobilized, and the upper circle rotates. The surfaces of both blocks are covered with a relief pattern, due to which the grain grinding process is carried out.

Stone millstones are driven by a special cross-shaped pin mounted on a vertical wooden rod. It is very important that both units are properly aligned and adjusted. Poorly balanced burrs will produce a poor quality grind.

Most often, millstones were made from limestone or fine-grained sandstone (or from what was “at hand”). The main thing is that the material is strong enough and durable.

M. S. Juraev

HISTORY OF THE MILL INDUSTRY: FROM SIMPLE GRINDERS TO A MILL MILL

Keywords: history of flour milling, grain grater, stone mortar, hand mill, millstones

In the course of a long history, mankind has developed a simple flour-grinding technology, methods for obtaining flour from cereal grains using water mills. Already at an early stage of the primitive communal system, people used the grains themselves for food. It has been established that in the Late Paleolithic era, a person learned to grind grains, at first simply with stones, and then specially adapted stone tools appeared - manual grain graters. Grinding grains of wheat and other cereals by hand was a laborious process, which was mostly done by women. The use of the power of water flow as an energy source has become an important stage in human economic activity. The watermill was one of the first technical inventions in which the force of the flow of water replaced muscular strength.

Grain grater. The grain grater is one of the most ancient tools of human labor, which played a significant role in the development of production. Despite the antiquity of origin, the grain grater has not completely fallen into disuse. Until now, there are mountain villages where these simple tools are used. This type of tool, made of durable stones of special rocks and having the shape of a simple saddle, is used for grinding flour. In the famous ancient Greek epic of Homer, a grain grater is mentioned in passing, and the method of using this tool is also reported (18, 280).

In the archeology of Central Asia, grain graters are very common finds during excavations of agricultural settlements. For example, at the well-known monument of the Eneolithic and Bronze Age - the settlement of Sarazm (IV-II millennium BC), elegant stone grain grinders of various shapes, made of stones of different rocks, were found (19, 89).

The raw materials for the manufacture of grain graters were flat stones: oval-elongated, boat-shaped, rectangular, amorphous. They differed in shape and weight. The grain graters found from the cultural layers of Sarazm were mainly of medium size and large sizes: 60-70 cm long, 10-15 cm wide, and in shape

In the form of a saddle and a boat (17, 30).

In Khorezm, grain graters were found measuring 15-20 cm in length, 11-11.8 cm in width, made of stones of hard rocks. These grain graters are dated III-II millennium BC (14, 90). Boat-shaped grain graters had a bend on the surface with a raised end, they are well processed. In some cases, only the surface parts of the grain graters were processed. The upper edges of the surface of the grain grinders were processed with abrasive equipment. The working part of the grain graters was finished in a dotted - chased way. Many grain graters had a very worn appearance. This indicates that they were in long-term use, and in some grain graters, tubules and cracks formed as a result of prolonged use. The back of the large grain graters at the same time remained convex. An example of this is grain graters found in 6 residential premises of Sarazm. Some grain graters of Sarazm were used for secondary grinding of ocher. Some grain graters found in the settlements of Dzhaytun and Altyndepe (from 22 to 45 cm long and 35 cm wide) were used for secondary grinding of grain (17, 30-31). Grain grinders of Sarazma are made exclusively from flat stone slabs, as well as cobblestone, granite. They had a deeply oblong cup-shaped form (19, 89). The upper stones or chimes had different sizes. They were made mainly from sandstone. They also had an ellipsoidal, scaphoid and discoid shape. These grain graters have survived to our times only in the form of fragments. During the manufacture of these chimes, a special alignment technique was used.

and facings. One part of them had a flat or convex appearance. In almost all chimes, the border between the edges and the working surface had a round shape. As a result of long-term use and heavy wear, they acquired a smooth and mirror-like surface. The sizes of the grain graters ranged from 15-26.5 cm in length, 9.4-12.4 cm in width and 12 cm in thickness (17.31). Grain in grain graters was ground with two stones: the lower stone was larger, and the middle was slightly flat and had a slight depression. The upper stone, called the grater, had a slightly smaller size and was round in shape. The stones also differed in weight. With the help of these two stones, the grains were ground to flour. With the help of these millstones, dried fruits, salt and much more were also prayed. The conditions for grinding flour with grain graters were as follows: women holding the grater with both hands, sat next to it and, leaning forward, pressed on the grater, moving it back and forth, crushing the grains in this way. As a result of long-term use, wear of stones occurred and small particles of stone often fell and mixed with flour (19, 569-570).

In 1954-1956, A.P. Okladnikov and B.A. Litvinsky explored more than 20 settlements of the Kairakkum culture of the Bronze Age. Archaeologists have found many tools, including grain graters, stone pestles, etc. Studies have shown that these products were obtained mainly by gouging various forms of granite and porphyrite (7, 11-12). During excavations in 16 rooms, a lot of tools were also found.

In the cave site Obishir 1 and 5, located in the valley of the Sokh River, archaeologists found stone tools, among which there were also millstones (9, 15). Many grain graters were also found during the study of the monuments of ancient Ustrushana. They were made of hard rock sandstone (13, 188).

The grain graters of the high-mountain settlements of the Sokha River valley were called “dastos” (9, 60). In the mountainous Wakhan and Ishkashim they were used and called "dos-dos" (1.91).

The Scythian tribes of the Black Sea region used oval-shaped grain graters. They were slightly curved and had recesses in the middle working part (4, 78).

Grain grinders are also found in large numbers in many

monuments of the Early Bronze Age in Dagestan. They were usually made from rounded boulders of dense limestone, as well as sandstone. Almost all of them were boat-shaped. Such grain graters, without the slightest change in shape, were used until the early Middle Ages, i.e. until they were replaced by round millstones (5, 12).

For example, in the layers of Derbent of the Albanian time, a large number of grain graters were found, made from hard local stones of sandstone, shell rock and large river cobblestone. They varied in size: the smallest was 29 cm long, the largest 52 cm, with a width of 10-25 cm and a thickness of 5-10 cm (6, 29).

Tajiks also ground flour in the mountain valleys of Afghan Badakhshan with similar grain graters. This is due to the fact that less grain was grown in mountainous areas. The main food ration of this population was mulberry, which was ground on stone grain grinders in a primitive way. To obtain mulberry flour, or rather, powders. Most of the population of Kuhistan and Badakhshan were called mulberry-eaters by Tajiks from neighboring villages (3, 207).

Until recently, many cults and rituals of mountain Tajiks were associated with grain graters. These rituals symbolized the completion of a long cycle of growing cereals and obtaining flour. A festive treat was prepared from the first flour. For example, the Khufs arranged a treat called “almof” (1.153).

In the course of archaeological excavations in the Kavat-Kala oasis of Khorezm, a hearth was discovered and two pits with fragments of grain graters were found near the hearth (14,154). The deliberate destruction of grain graters could be associated with the idea of ​​cyclical renewal of nature. Also, some grain graters served two or three centuries. They are usually passed down from generation to generation.

Stone stupas - "uguri sangin". In the recent past, they met in the cities and mountain villages of Northern Tajikistan. According to U. Eshonkulov, small metal and bronze mortars were used in some villages in the Middle Ages and modern times. But they were used mainly for grinding seeds, apricots, nuts, etc., mainly for

medicinal purposes (19, 570).

More than three dozen stone mortars with pestles of cylindrical, cuboid, rectangular, bowl-shaped and oval shapes were found at the settlement of ancient Penjikent, dating back to the 5th-8th centuries. They were made of hard rocks, including marble-like limestone, sandstone, diorite, and other rocks. The sizes of the found mortars ranged from 12 to 26 cm in length, 10-19 cm in width, 6-13.5 cm in height, and 4-1.9 cm in wall thickness; recess diameter 28-13.5 cm, container depth 3.1-17.5 cm.

Along with mortars, pestles (40 pieces) of various shapes and colors were found: cone-shaped, round, oval, cylindrical, wooden with one or two working ends. The raw materials for them were mainly hard rocks of sandstone, marble-like limestone, single green pebbles and dense hard shale. In order for the pestles to have a certain shape, they were finished with abrasive equipment and a dot-chased method. As a result of light blows in the mortar, in its working places, the surfaces were ground, flat vertical facets of utilization. Cracks were observed in many pestles, wear as a result of long-term use of which occurred during friction inside the mortar. The length of the pestles reached from 20 to 36 cm, the thickness - from 4.2 to 12.8 cm, the diameter of the spherical pestles reached from 5.5 to 11.4 cm (17, 32-33). In the village of Zebon, a pestle 40 cm long was found, made using the dotted method. The tool has a thin neck marked by a head, the working part is ovoid, about 7-8 cm wide (19, 570). According to ethnographic materials, in the village of Khuf, roasted and dried grains were also crushed in stone mortars (1, 239).

In the Middle Ages, small metal, bronze mortars were also used in the life of mountain Tajiks, but they have not survived to this day. After the inclusion of Central Asia into Russia, steel mortars with pestles appeared here, which are still used in the mills of the cities of Northern Tajikistan.

In addition to stone and metal mortars, there are also wooden mortars made from willow, walnut, mulberry, and other hardwoods. However, they are short-lived and wear out quickly. They vary depending on the application.

for small and medium - "hovancha". Their sizes range from 20 to 40 cm, with a diameter of up to 15-25 cm. Large mortars - "khovan" usually ranged in height from 60 to 120 cm, with a diameter of up to 50-80 cm.

For grinding grain at home, hardwood pestles were used. They were thick and strong. In the middle of the pestles, oblong-shaped pestles were made for gripping with both hands. Two people worked with heavier pestles, standing on both sides opposite each other and holding on to the pestle. In such wooden mortars, various grains were ground, including pure rice to the husk, and dried fruits, salt, grain and other cereals were often crushed.

Until recently, large wooden mortars were used in Khujand and its suburbs. In them, in addition to cereals, dry bread, salt, dried fruits and other foodstuffs were crushed. The method of making a stupa was very simple. A large apricot, walnut, apple and other tree with a diameter of about 1.20 m was cut out. This trunk was installed in a vertical position and a burning fire from coal or a fire from a tandoor was placed on it in order to make a depression. Then hot oil was poured into this recess and kept for a day. Further work was performed by master carpenters who, using a hammer and a cutting metin, made an oval hole. Unfortunately, in our time, this method of making pestles has been lost (15).

The population of Central Asia had many ways of grinding grain. So, for example, the Turkmens grinded grain crops with their hands in a mortar. In their language, this device was called "juices" (16, 78). The Kirghiz called him "soku" (2, 67).

Manual mill. The hand mill was one of the earliest man-made tools used to grind grain and make flour. According to a number of researchers, hand mills were first made in Western Asia. Small fragments of stone millstones were found in the cultural layers of Sarazm III-II millennium BC. The earliest hand mills were oval stones with a flat work surface and a through hole. They differ in shape and weight. As a rule, millstones were made of hard rocks of stone. Hand mills with a millstone diameter of 30-50 cm were characteristic of the entire Middle East (19, 91). For example, dia-

meters of millstones of hand mills of Khorezm (VII-VIII centuries) were from 32 to 48 cm, with a thickness of 4-6 cm (14, 96).

In the Middle Ages, hand mills were widespread throughout Central Asia. In remote mountain villages, hand mills have survived to this day. They pass from generation to generation, are widely used in the economy.

The method of using hand mills was well described by U. Eshonkulov: “both millstones had a rounded shape, the lower one had a recess in the middle (5-6 cm), the upper one had a through hole, the width of which exceeded the width of the lower recess by 23 cm; on the edge of the surface there was a depression of 4-5 cm for the stick. Before grinding the grain, they first spread a tablecloth on which the mill was installed. A short stick made of hard wood - the axis - was fixed in the recess of the lower millstone, and the upper free one rotated around it. With the right hand they rotated the handle of the upper millstone, with the left they poured grain into the hole. Often two people worked: one turned the millstones, the other added grain. The resulting flour was sifted through a fine sieve and fine grinding was separated from coarse (19, 570).

The area where millstones were mined and made has been archaeologically recorded. In the suburbs of Khurmi Penjikent, on the right bank of the Zerafshan River, there is a mountain sai called "Sangbur" i.e. quarry. Fragments of millstones of hand mills from the Sangbur area are found in many monuments of the Zerafshan valley, starting from the 3rd-5th centuries. From the 7th to the 20th centuries, the volume of millstone mining can be traced, as evidenced by their numerous fragments. According to the old-timers of Sangbur village, this quarry has been functioning for more than 15 centuries. More than 20 fragments of hand millstones were found in Penjikent and its surrounding villages. In the southern part of the city, in the area of ​​​​the villages of Gurdara and Savr, several dozen more fragments of millstones were found. A series of hand millstones were made from hard rock stones brought by mudflows of the Zeravshan River.

In the Middle Ages, in many villages of the mountainous Sogd, the simplest method of grain processing functioned - a hand mill. The Sogdians called them "hutana", i.e. - self-indulgence. The term "hutana" is still used by the Yaghnobs in the meaning of "mill".

The famous ethnographer A.S.Davydov discovered two hand mills in the village of Sayyod, Shaartuz region. The indigenous population called them "dastos". According to A.S. Davydov, grinding was exclusively a women's business. Women brought their grain to the miller's house and ground it themselves at the owner's mill. In return, they gave him 1 bowl of flour.

In the Amu-Darya oasis, wealthy families rarely worked at hand mills themselves, mostly by hiring day laborers who were paid from 2 to 7 pounds of grain per day.

According to U. Dzhakhonov, the hand mill among the Tajiks of the northern group of regions of Tajikistan was called "yarguchok" (9, 60-61). Ethnographer H.H. Ershov, who collected his field material in the Gissar Valley, as well as in the city of Karatag, notes that “we should also mention the device of a hand-held paint mill - a “yarguchok”, on which dyes were ground and watering was ground (10.88-89).

Among the Eastern Slavs, the hand mill was called differently: Russians and Belarusians - zhorns, zhoranki; northern Russians - kletets, ermak; Ukrainians are zhorna. The hand mill was used mainly for grinding salt and, very rarely, for making flour. Here, as in the Tajik village of Karatag, potters usually grind quartz sand and lead oxide in hand mills. In addition, in some regions of Ukraine, there is still a custom of grinding grain into flour at a hand mill, from which bridesmaids bake a wedding loaf (11, 118-119). In this regard, it should be especially noted that in the villages of Northern Tajikistan, bridesmaids still bake special wedding bread at weddings and put it on a festive tablecloth (15).

In the XVII-XX centuries. in many cities and villages, there were mills on large irrigation canals. And in some even steam rooms, which ground up to 1.5 tons of wheat. In remote mountain villages, where they had no idea about a water mill at all, hand mills remained the main method of obtaining flour in the 50s-60s. 20th century

Until the mid-1950s. water and hand mills were the means that provided the population of Northern Tajikistan and its mountain villages with food flour.

LITERATURE:

1.Andreev M.S. Tajiks of the Khuf Valley (Upper reaches of the Amu Darya). -Stalinabad, 1956, - ​​Issue. II.

2. Bezhakovich A.S. Historical and ethnographic features of Kyrgyz agriculture. Essays on the history of the economy of the peoples of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. // Proceedings of In.ethn. them. H.H. Miklouho-Maclay. New Series Vol. XCVIII. - L., 1973.

3. Vavilov N.I., Bukinich D.D., Agricultural Afghanistan. - L., 1929.

4. Gavrilyuk H.A. Home production and life of the steppe Scythians. - Kiev, 1989.

5. Gadzhiev M.G. Stone processing in Dagestan in the early Bronze Age // Crafts and crafts of ancient and medieval Dagestan. Digest of articles. - Makhachkala, 1988.

6. Gadzhiev M.S. Crafts and crafts of Derbent of the Alban time // Crafts and crafts of ancient and medieval Dagestan. Digest of articles. - Makhachkala, 1988.

7. Gulyamova E. Archaeological and numismatic collections of the Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography of the Taj Academy of Sciences. SSR. (Short review). - Stalinabad, 1989.

8. Davydov A.S. Diaries. Hissar ethnographic expedition of 1974 // Archive of the Institute of History, Archeology and Ethnography named after V.I. A. Donish. Folder No. 2, inventory No. 19. - Dushanbe, 1974.

9. Dzhakhonov U. Agriculture of the Tajiks of the Sokha Valley in the late XIX - early XX centuries. - Dushanbe, 1989.

Yu.Ershov H.H. Karatag and his crafts. - Dushanbe, 1984. P. Zelenin D.K. East Slavic ethnography. - M „1991.

12. Ilyina V.M. Materials on the survey of nomadic and settled native economy and land use in the Amu-Darya region. - Issue. I. - Tashkent, 1915.

13. Negmatov H.H., Khmelintsky S.E. Medieval Shahristan. (material culture of Ustrushana). - Issue. 1. - Dushanbe, 1966.

14. Nerazik E.E. Rural settlements of Afrigtsy Khorezm. - M 1966.

15. Pirkuliyeva A. Household trades and crafts of the Turkmens of the Middle Amu-Darya valley in the second half of the 19th-20th centuries. - Ashgabat, 1973.

17. Razzakov A. Sarazm (Tools of labor and economy according to experimental-trace data). - Dushanbe, 2008.

18. Semyonov S.A. The origin of agriculture. - L., 1974. 19. Eshonkulov U. The history of the agricultural culture of the mountainous Sogd (from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century). - Dushanbe, 2007.

The history of milling, from simple grain graters to millstones

M. S. Juraee

Keywords: grain grater, stone mortar, hand mill, millstones, tools, flour

In the article, the author, on the basis of field material, outlines the history of the evolution of water and hand mills in a group of cities and mountain villages in Northern Tajikistan. The author emphasizes that in the past, due to the lack of centralized delivery to the southern regions of Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan, water and hand mills were the only source of providing the population with bread products.

The History of Milling from Simple Grain Graters up to a Millstone

Key words: grain grater, stone mortar, millstones, tools of labor, flour

Proceeding from the collected field material the author expounds the history of the evolution concerned with water and manual mills of the group of towns and mountains villages of Northern Tajikistan. The author lays an emphasis upon the fact that in the past because of non-availability of a central delivery into the southern areas of Russia, the Ukraine and Kazakhstan manual mills served as the only source ofproviding population with bread products.

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Likbez: How the mill works

Have you ever wondered how flour is made from grain? I've always wondered how ancient mills worked. In Suzdal, everything was explained to us in detail.

It is clear that the wind rotates these blades. Their frame is wooden, and they were covered with cloth, canvas.

And do you know what these sticks are for at the back of the mill? Do you think it won't hit? ;)

And here are the figurines. With their help, the whole mill was TURNED in order to catch the wind more adroitly, well, isn’t it funny? :-))

The mechanics of the mill was explained to us on this model, which was inside the real mill and, unlike the latter, was in working order ;-))

Well, in general, the wind rotates the blades, the blades rotate this horizontal log:

A horizontal log, with the help of ancient gears, already rotates a vertical log:

The vertical log, in turn, with the help of the same gears, rotates such stone pancakes - millstones, down there, see?:

And from above, grain from these boxes, similar to inverted pyramids, poured into the holes of the millstones. Ready flour through holes in the wood of the front wall fell into a special box, called the "bottom bin".

Remember the fairy tale about the kolobok? ;) “Grandma broomed the barn, scraped the barrels…” As a child, I always wondered what kind of barrels are such in which you can put flour on a whole bun? In our apartment, flour was not just lying around in boxes. ;-)) Well, not even forty years have passed since the riddle was solved! 8-)))

Mill - wind and water

The most ancient devices for grinding grain into flour and peeling it into grits were preserved as family mills until the beginning of the 20th century. and were hand millstones made of two stones, round in section, made of hard quartz sandstone with a diameter of 40-60 cm. The last mill of this type ceased to exist in Russia in the middle of the 19th century.

The Russians learned to use the energy of water falling on a wheel with blades at the beginning of the second millennium. Watermills have always been surrounded by an aura of mystery, covered with poetic legends, tales and superstitions. Wheel mills with a whirlpool and a whirlpool are in themselves unsafe structures, which is reflected in the Russian proverb: “They will take water from any new mill.”

Written and graphic sources testify to the wide distribution of windmills in the middle lane and in the North. Often, large villages were surrounded by a ring of 20-30 mills, standing on high, windy places. Windmills grinded on millstones from 100 to 400 pounds of grain per day. They also had stupas (croupers) for obtaining cereals. In order for the mills to work, their wings had to be turned under the changing direction of the wind - this led to the combination of fixed and moving parts in each mill.

Russian carpenters created many different and ingenious versions of mills. Already in our time, more than twenty varieties of their constructive solutions have been recorded.

Of these, two fundamental types of mills can be distinguished: “pillars”

Post mills:
a - on poles; b - on the stand; in - on the frame.
and "tents".

The first were common in the North, the second - in the middle lane and the Volga region. Both names also reflect the principle of their device.
In the first type, the mill barn rotated on a post dug into the ground. The support was either additional pillars, or a pyramidal log crate, chopped "in cut", or a frame.

The principle of mills-tentacles was different

Tent Mills:
a - on a truncated octagon; b - on a straight eight; c - octagon on the barn.
- their lower part in the form of a truncated octagonal frame was motionless, and the smaller upper part rotated under the wind. And this type in different areas had many options, including mill-towers - quadruple, six and eight.

All types and variants of mills amaze with precise design calculations and the logic of cuttings, which withstood strong winds. Folk architects also paid attention to the external appearance of these only vertical economic structures, the silhouette of which played a significant role in the ensemble of villages. This was expressed both in the perfection of proportions, and in the elegance of carpentry, and in the carvings on pillars and balconies.

water mills

Windmill diagram

Donkey-drawn mill

Mill station

The most essential part of the flour mill - the mill set or tackle - consists of two millstones: the upper, or runner, BUT and - lower, or lower, IN .

Millstones are stone circles of considerable thickness, having a through hole in the middle, called a point, and on the grinding surface, the so-called. notch (see below). The lower millstone lies motionless; his asshole is tightly closed with a wooden sleeve, a circle g , through the hole in the center of which the spindle passes FROM ; on top of the latter a runner is planted by means of an iron rod CC , strengthened by the ends in a horizontal position in the runner's point and called the paraplice, or fluff.

In the middle of the paraplice (and, consequently, in the center of the millstone), on its lower side, a pyramidal or conical recess was made, into which the correspondingly pointed upper end of the spindle enters. FROM .

With this connection of the runner with the spindle, the first rotates when the latter rotates and, if necessary, can be easily removed from the spindle. The lower end of the spindle is inserted with a spike into a bearing mounted on a beam D . The latter can be raised and lowered and thus increase and decrease the distance between the millstones. Spindle FROM rotates with the help of the so-called. pinion gear E ; these are two disks put on a spindle at a small distance from each other and fastened together, around the circumference, with vertical sticks.

The pinion gear is rotated by the wind wheel F , which has teeth on the right side of its rim that grab the pinion gear by the sticks and thus rotate it together with the spindle.

per axle Z a wing is put on, which is set in motion by the wind; or, in a water mill, a water wheel driven by water. Grain is introduced through the bucket but and a runner's point in the gap between the millstones. The bucket consists of a funnel but and trough b, suspended under the runner's point.

Grinding of grain occurs in the gap between the upper surface of the bottom and the bottom of the runner. Both millstones are dressed with a casing N , which prevents the scattering of grains. As the grinding proceeds, the grains are moved by the action of centrifugal force and the pressure of newly arriving grains) from the center of the bottom to the circumference, fall from the bottom and go along the inclined chute, into the pecking sleeve R - for screening. Sleeve E is made of woolen or silk chintz and placed in a closed box. Q The from which its underlying end is exposed.

First, fine flour is sifted and falls at the back of the box; coarser is sown at the end of the sleeve; bran lingers on the sieve S , and the coarsest flour is collected in a box T .

Millstone

The surface of the millstone is divided by deep grooves called furrows, into separate flat areas called grinding surfaces. From the furrows, expanding, smaller grooves depart, called plumage. Furrows and flat surfaces are distributed in a repeating pattern called accordion.

A typical millstone has six, eight or ten of these harmonicas. The system of grooves and grooves, firstly, forms a cutting edge, and secondly, provides a gradual pouring of the finished flour from under the millstones. With the constant use of a millstone? require timely undercutting i.e. trimming the edges of all flutes to maintain a sharp cutting edge.

Millstones are used in pairs. The lower millstone is installed permanently. The upper millstone, also known as the runner, is movable, and it is he who produces the direct grinding. The mobile millstone is driven by a cross-shaped metal "pin" mounted on the head of the main rod or drive shaft, which rotates under the influence of the main mechanism of the mill (using wind or water power). The relief pattern is repeated on each of the two millstones, thus providing the effect of "scissors" when grinding the grains.

The millstones must be equally balanced. Proper positioning of the stones is critical to ensure high quality flour grinding.

The best material for millstones is a special stone - viscous, hard and incapable of polishing sandstone, called millstone. Since stones in which all these properties are sufficiently and evenly developed are rare, good millstones are very expensive.

On the rubbing surfaces of the millstones, a notch is made, i.e., a series of deep grooves are pierced, and the gaps between these grooves are brought to a roughly rough state. The grain falls during grinding between the grooves of the upper and lower millstones and is torn and cut by the sharp cutting edges of the notch grooves into more or less large particles, which are finally ground after leaving the grooves.

The grooves of the notch also serve as the paths along which the ground grain moves from the point to the circle and leaves the millstone. Since millstones, even those of the best material, wear out, the cut must be renewed from time to time.

Description of constructions and principle of operation of mills

The mills are called pillars because their barn rests on a pillar dug into the ground and lined with a log frame. It contains beams that hold the column from vertical displacement. Of course, the barn rests not only on a pillar, but on a log frame (from the word cut, logs cut not tightly, but with gaps). On top of such a row, an even round ring is made of plates or boards. The lower frame of the mill itself rests on it.

Rows at the posts can be of different shapes and heights, but not higher than 4 meters. They can rise from the ground immediately in the form of a tetrahedral pyramid, or at first vertically, and from a certain height pass into a truncated pyramid. There were, though very rarely, mills on a low frame.

The base of smocks can also be different in shape and design. For example, a pyramid may start from ground level, and the structure may not be a log frame, but a frame one. The pyramid can be based on a log quadrangle, and utility rooms, a vestibule, a miller's room, etc. can be attached to it.

The main thing in mills is their mechanisms.

In smocks, the interior space is divided by ceilings into several tiers. Communication with them goes along steep attic-type stairs through hatches left in the ceilings. Parts of the mechanism can be located on all tiers. And they can be from four to five. The core of the shatrovka is a mighty vertical shaft penetrating the mill through to the "cap". It rests through a metal thrust bearing fixed in a beam that rests on a paving frame. The beam can be moved in different directions with the help of wedges. This allows you to give the shaft a strictly vertical position. The same can be done with the help of the upper beam, where the shaft pin is embedded in a metal loop.

In the lower tier, a large gear is put on the shaft with cams-teeth fixed along the outer contour of the round base of the gear. During operation, the movement of a large gear, multiplied several times, is transmitted to a small gear or pinion of another vertical, usually metal shaft. This shaft pierces the fixed lower millstone and abuts against a metal bar, on which the upper movable (rotating) millstone is suspended through the shaft. Both millstones are dressed with a wooden casing from the sides and from above. Millstones are installed on the second tier of the mill. The beam in the first tier, on which a small vertical shaft with a small gear rests, is suspended on a metal threaded pin and, with the help of a threaded washer with handles, can be slightly raised or lowered. With it, the upper millstone rises or falls. This regulates the fineness of grinding grain.

From the casing of the millstones, a deaf wooden chute with a board with a valve at the end and two metal hooks, on which a bag filled with flour is suspended, is obliquely passed down.

Next to the block of millstones, a jib crane with metal arches-captures is installed. With it, the millstones can be removed from their places for forging.

Above the casing of the millstones, from the third tier, a grain supply hopper rigidly fixed to the ceiling descends. It has a valve with which you can shut off the grain supply. It has the shape of an inverted truncated pyramid. From below, a swinging tray is suspended from it. For springiness, it has a juniper bar and a pin lowered into the hole of the upper millstone. A metal ring is installed eccentrically in the hole. The ring can be with two or three oblique feathers. Then it is installed symmetrically. A pin with a ring is called a shell. Running along the inner surface of the ring, the pin changes position all the time and swings the obliquely suspended tray. This movement throws the grain into the millstone. From there, it enters the gap between the stones, grinds into flour, which enters the casing, from it into a closed tray and bag.

The grain is poured into a bunker cut into the floor of the third tier. Bags of grain are fed here with the help of a gate and a rope with a hook. The gate can be connected and disconnected from a pulley mounted on a vertical shaft. This is done from below with a rope and a lever. , passing through the hatch, open the shutters, which then arbitrarily slam shut.The miller turns off the gate, and the bag is on the hatch covers.The operation is repeated.

In the last tier, located in the "cap", another small gear with beveled cams-teeth is installed and fixed on a vertical shaft. It makes the vertical shaft rotate and starts the whole mechanism. But it is forced to work by a large gear on a "horizontal" shaft. The word is enclosed in quotation marks because, in fact, the shaft lies with a certain slope of the inner end down. The pin of this end is enclosed in a metal shoe of a wooden frame, the base of the cap. The raised end of the shaft, which goes out, rests calmly on a "bearing" stone, slightly rounded at the top. Metal plates are embedded on the shaft in this place, protecting the shaft from rapid abrasion.

Two mutually perpendicular beams-brackets are cut into the outer head of the shaft, to which other beams are attached with clamps and bolts - the basis of the lattice wings. The wings can receive the wind and rotate the shaft only when the canvas is spread on them, usually folded into bundles at rest, not working hours. The surface of the wings will depend on the strength and speed of the wind.

The gear of the "horizontal" shaft is equipped with teeth cut into the side of the circle. From above it is hugged by a wooden brake block, which can be released or strongly tightened with a lever. Sudden braking in strong and gusty winds will cause high temperatures as wood rubs against wood, and even smoldering. This is best avoided.

Before operation, the wings of the mill should be turned towards the wind. For this there is a lever with struts - "carrier".

Around the mill, small columns of at least 8 pieces were dug in. They were "driven" and fastened with a chain or a thick rope. With the strength of 4-5 people, even if the upper ring of the tent and parts of the frame are well lubricated with grease or something similar (previously lubricated with lard), it is very difficult, almost impossible, to turn the "cap" of the mill. "Horsepower" does not work here either. Therefore, they used a small portable gate, which was alternately put on the posts with its trapezoidal frame, which served as the basis of the entire structure.

A block of millstones with a casing with all the parts and details located above and below it was called in one word - setting. Usually, small and medium-sized windmills were made "about one set." Large windmills could be built with two stands. There were also windmills with "crushes" where linseed or hemp seeds were pressed to obtain the appropriate oil. Waste - cake - was also used in the household. "Saw" windmills did not seem to meet.

The process of grinding (crushing) solids was known many thousands of years ago, long before our ancestors had to crush grain. The tools for crushing stones were various kinds of strikers and plates.
To grind grains of wild-growing cereals, various fruits and roots, primitive people used stone graters along with percussion instruments. Between the surfaces of two stones - the lower fixed and the upper, which made a reciprocating motion - the grain was crushed as a result of compression and shear. The appearance of tools, the work of which was based on these principles, is attributed to the Neolithic period, when man learned to grind stone. On the territory of Russia, grain graters were used as early as ten thousand years BC.
Grain graters found in the settlement of Luka-Vrublevetskaya discovered by S. N. Bibikov belong to the era of the developed Neolithic. Grain grinders used in later periods were also found in other places.
The next stage in the development of the process of grinding grain into flour was the combined effect on the grain of a percussion and abrading tool.
As established by research, the tribes of the late Trypillian culture and the tribes of the so-called "catacomb culture", who used both graters and stone mortars with pestles, were no longer content with primitive coarse crushing of grain; there is reason to assume that increased requirements for the quality of the resulting flour appeared at that time. Apparently, mortars with pestles served mainly for peeling grain and primary grinding, and graters for secondary (“fine”) grinding of shelled or crushed grain. Such "repetitive" grinding was inevitably associated with flour sifting. For this, sieves of various materials were used.
From grain subjected to coarse crushing, particles of various sizes were selected on sieves and again crushed using grain grinders or in mortars. The use of these methods testifies to the high level of Trypillia culture. At that time, weaving, the art of netting and other crafts were already widespread.
‘Further improvement of methods and means of grinding found expression in the gradual transition from a grain grinder to a millstone, the work of which was based on a new principle of movement of the upper stone. Replacing the reciprocating movement with a rotational one made it possible to increase labor productivity and use for this purpose first the power of animals, then the energy of wind, water, and finally steam. But in some countries, up to the present day, mortars, grain grinders, and hand millstones are preserved.
According to Marx, the stone mill (mainly water mill) served as the starting point for the development of the machine industry and some modern branches of science. “On the basis of the mill, the doctrine of friction was created, and at the same time, studies were carried out on the mathematical forms of gearing, teeth, etc. On its basis, the doctrine was first developed on measuring the magnitude of the driving force, on the best ways to use it, etc. e. Almost all the great mathematicians, since the middle of the 17th century, since they deal with practical mechanics and put a theoretical basis under it, start from a simple water mill for grain.
For more than 2000 years, the design of the millstone has been improved; until the second half of the 19th century, it remained the only machine for grinding grain in mills. The working (grinding) surface of the millstones changed. Over time, it was given the desired geometric shape, which ensured the performance of various tasks associated with grinding.
Archaeological research carried out on the territory of our homeland indicates that the found millstones have been used for a long time in water mills. Such mills were in the Galician, Volyn and Kiev principalities of ancient Russia.
The construction of a water mill, associated with the implementation of relatively large and responsible construction work on the construction of dams, required knowledge and skills. Millers, or as they were then called "water people", were outstanding "craftsmen" and "cunning"; for many centuries they have advanced the technology of flour production.
The mills of southwestern Russia are mentioned in ancient documents in the same way as the mills of northeastern Russia, from the 13th century. In the label of Khan Mengu Temir (1267), mills are also mentioned among the objects of the possessions of the clergy.
The history of the culture of ancient Russia shows that along with the flour milling technique, its technology was improved. In those days, the "secrets" of obtaining high quality flour were already known. Chronicles dating back to the end of the 10th century mention “pure bread”, “bread as clean as green”. Kissel was made from wheat bran. Bran indicates the presence and period of varietal milling.
According to the chronicler, the inhabitants of Belgorod were advised in 997 to collect "... a handful of oats, or wheat, or bran" (i.e., bran). During the siege of the city in the same year 997, women were ordered to make a “tsezh” from bran, oats and wheat, and boil kissel in this “tsezh” (i.e., in a filtered solution).
A document dating back to the 12th century - "The Word of Daniil the Sharpener" - gives an idea of ​​the complexity of varietal milling of wheat. “Gold,” the “Word” says, “is crushed by fire, and a person by adversity; wheat is much tormented, pure bread is manifest ... ".
In miniatures dating back to the 16th century. and illustrating various episodes from the story about the life of Sergius of Radonezh, which is part of the chronicle, the technology for the production of flour and bread is reproduced in detail. The text says that Sergius of Radonezh "swallows the prosvir himself more", for which he "crushes and grinds wheat, and sows flour ...".
The miniatures depict the process of processing grain in a mortar (crush). Next, the processes of grinding grain in a manual millstone, sifting and baking bread are depicted. Thus, there is a combined use of technological methods and production tools already known in ancient times, with the only difference that the grain grinder gave way to a hand millstone,
The word "crusher" should not be understood in the sense that Prof. A. V. Artsikhovsky, who argued that crushing is supposedly an operation to separate shells. Apparently, the concept of “crushing, grinding, turning into small pieces” is closer to the truth, that is, in a mortar, the grain was subjected to coarse grinding (crushing), and in a millstone - fine.
In the XIV century. (Kalachov's archive) mentions "grain bread", i.e. bread baked from flour, known to this day under the name "grain".
Documents on the activity of the Solovetsky Monastery, the largest in Russia, dating back to the 16th century, testify to the high level of technology and technology of flour milling. This monastery had a developed mill economy, since it had to serve not only the numerous monastic brethren of “servants” and archers, but also a large number of workers in the salt mines. In addition, the Solovetsky mills were engaged in grinding grain brought from far and near places adjacent to the patrimony.
At the monastery water mills, improved methods of grinding grain are introduced and, most importantly, individual technological operations are mechanized on the initiative and under the leadership of the abbot of the monastery F. S. Kolychev.
“Yes, before Philip the Abbot, many brothers sowed rye, and Philip the Abbot ripened the sower, ten sieves one elder sows, but under Philip, the sieve itself sows and pours, and bran and flour breeds differently, and the cereal itself sows and pours and breeds differently groats and cuts... Philip dressed the wind with furs and wind rye in the mill. This record indicates the use at that time of the main elements of the modern process of grinding grain in the production of high-quality flour. “Rose breeding of cereals and cuts”, as well as bran and flour, i.e. the formation and selection of grits and the separate processing of intermediate products of different quality, led to the presence of several grinding systems (minimum 3-4).
In the assortment of flour produced in the 16th century. along with “seed” and “crushed” flour, “brittle” flour was also often found.
In Moscow and suburban estates, "large mills" worked. Ivan the Terrible, sending to meet the British Ambassador Boves, who was going to Moscow, sent him, among other things, "feed" "groovy flour."
For the production of high-grade flour, especially "croup flour", wheat varieties with a high content of vitreous grains, perfect technological methods and skilled workers were required.
Sending an order to his Nizhny Novgorod estates to send to Moscow 30 quarters of wheat, “which would be suitable for coarse flour,” boyar Morozov gives a strict order: “Order the wheat to be cleaned clean and to grind finely and slenderly, so as not to burn ... but like wheat take it away for flour, and tell the Kalashnikovs to taste that wheat, bake pies: two-altyn, hryvnia and five-altyn will not be clean in pies and that wheat will not shrink and rise to me and send 30 couples.
Here we are already facing increased technological requirements. The exacting boyar, the main consumer of the best quality flour, wants it to be of high merits, and for this the grain must be carefully prepared for grinding, that is, it must not have any impurities. Grinding should be carried out in such a way that the maximum number of grains is formed, which are subjected to fine grinding. “Slimness”, that is, the evenness of the products, must be achieved by careful sorting. The words about “burning out” should be understood as a specific indication of the establishment of a grinding mode, in which the temperature of the product should not, as a result of excessive convergence of the working surfaces of the millstones, rise beyond the established limits. Translated into modern scientific language, it refers to the preservation of the quality of gluten, the existence of which, apparently, then could have had some idea. And finally, what deserves special attention is the mandatory “trial baking” to evaluate the baking qualities of flour.
The development of the patrimonial industry in the Muscovite state of the 17th century, on the one hand, and the presence of handicraft small-scale production, on the other, contributed to the further development of grain processing technology, the better use of water and wind energy.
In the first quarter of the XVIII century. In Russia, the transition from handicraft to manufactory production began. The manufactory period under the conditions of serfdom dragged on in our country until the middle of the 19th century, and serf manufactory first turned into a capitalist, manufactory, and then into a capital and a static factory.
The establishment in 1728 of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the founding of the Free Economic Society in 1765 to a certain extent contributed to the development of the country's productive forces, primarily agriculture.
Through the efforts of domestic scientists, the first scientific ideas about grain (HO) are being created.
The expansion of grain farming, in turn, led to the emergence of commercial flour milling, which began to develop in connection with the increased growth of urban centers. Near these centers there are a large number of "flour" or "bread" mills. At that time, even large flour mills with 10 millstones were built, and a mill with 24 millstones was built in Morshansk.
On the process of grinding wheat grain at the end, XVIII century. V. Levshin, the author of one of the first fundamental works in Russia on flour milling, gives an idea. A special section is devoted to this process, in which the description of the stages of production of flour of various varieties deserves special attention. According to Levshin's description, using modern graphical methods, it is possible to build an approximate scheme of the technological process (Fig. 1). So, apparently, six systems were intended to obtain grains. Two