Alexander III is the unknown emperor of Russia. Peacemaker Emperor

Emperor Alexander III(1845-1894) ascended the throne after the assassination of his father Alexander II by terrorists. Ruled the Russian Empire in 1881-1894. He proved himself to be an extremely tough autocrat, mercilessly fighting any revolutionary manifestations in the country.

On the day of his father’s death, the new ruler of Russia left the Winter Palace and, surrounding himself with heavy security, took refuge in Gatchina. That became his main bet for many years, since the sovereign was afraid of assassination attempts and was especially afraid of being poisoned. He lived extremely secluded, and there were security guards on duty around the clock.

Years of the reign of Alexander III (1881-1894)

Domestic policy

It often happens that a son holds different views than his father. This state of affairs was also typical for the new emperor. Having ascended the throne, he immediately established himself as a consistent opponent of his father’s policies. And by character, the sovereign was not a reformer or thinker.

Here one should take into account the fact that Alexander III was the second son, and the eldest son Nicholas was prepared for government activities from an early age. But he fell ill and died in 1865 at the age of 21. After this, Alexander was considered the heir, but he was no longer a boy, and by that time he had received a rather superficial education.

He came under the influence of his teacher K.P. Pobedonostsev, who was an ardent opponent of reforms along the Western model. Therefore, the new tsar became the enemy of all those institutions that could weaken the autocracy. As soon as the newly-made autocrat ascended the throne, he immediately removed all his father’s ministers from their posts.

He primarily showed his toughness of character in relation to the murderers of Alexander II. Since they committed the crime on March 1, they were called March 1st. All five were sentenced to death by hanging. Many public figures asked the emperor to replace the death penalty with imprisonment, but the new ruler Russian Empire upheld the death sentence.

The police regime in the state has noticeably strengthened. It was reinforced by the “Regulation on Enhanced and Emergency Security”. As a result, protests have noticeably decreased, and terrorist activity has sharply declined. There was only one successful attempt on the life of prosecutor Strelnikov in 1882 and one unsuccessful attempt on the emperor in 1887. Despite the fact that the conspirators were just about to kill the sovereign, they were hanged. In total, 5 people were executed, and among them was Lenin’s elder brother Alexander Ulyanov.

At the same time, the situation of the people became easier. Purchase payments decreased, banks began to issue loans to peasants for the purchase of arable land. Poll taxes were abolished, and night factory work for women and teenagers was limited. Emperor Alexander III also signed a decree “On the conservation of forests.” Its implementation was entrusted to the governors general. In 1886, the Russian Empire established a national holiday, Railwayman's Day. Stabilized financial system, and industry began to develop rapidly.

Foreign policy

The years of the reign of Emperor Alexander III were peaceful, so the sovereign was called Peacemaker. He was primarily concerned with finding reliable allies. Relations with Germany did not work out due to trade rivalry, so Russia became closer to France, which was interested in an anti-German alliance. In 1891, the French squadron arrived in Kronstadt on a friendly visit. The Emperor himself met her.

He twice prevented a German attack on France. And the French, as a sign of gratitude, named one of the main bridges over the Seine in honor of the Russian emperor. In addition, Russian influence in the Balkans increased. Clear borders were established in the south of Central Asia, and Russia was completely entrenched in Far East.

In general, even the Germans noted that the Emperor of the Russian Empire is a real autocrat. And when enemies say this, it costs a lot.

The Russian emperor was deeply convinced that the royal family should be a role model. Therefore, in his personal relationships he adhered to the principles of decent Christian behavior. In this, apparently, the fact that the sovereign was in love with his wife played an important role. She was the Danish Princess Sophia Frederica Dagmara (1847-1928). After accepting Orthodoxy she became Maria Feodorovna.

At first, the girl was destined to be the wife of the heir to the throne, Nikolai Alexandrovich. The bride came to Russia and met the Romanov family. Alexander fell in love with the Danish woman at first sight, but did not dare to express it in any way, since she was the fiancée of his older brother. However, Nikolai died before the wedding, and Alexander’s hands were untied.

Alexander III with his wife Maria Feodorovna

In the summer of 1866, the new heir to the throne proposed marriage to the girl. Soon the engagement took place, and on October 28, 1866, the young people got married. Maria fit perfectly into the capital's society, and the happy marriage lasted almost 30 years.

Husband and wife separated very rarely. The Empress even accompanied her husband on a bear hunt. When the spouses wrote letters to each other, they were filled with love and care for each other. This marriage produced 6 children. Among them is the future Emperor Nicholas II. Maria Fedorovna, after the start of the revolution, went to her homeland in Denmark, where she died in 1928, having long outlived her beloved husband.

The idyll of family life was almost destroyed by a train accident that occurred on October 17, 1888. The tragedy occurred not far from Kharkov near the Borki station. The royal train was carrying the crowned family from Crimea and was traveling at high speed. As a result, he derailed on a railway embankment. In this case, 21 people were killed and 68 were injured.

As for the royal family, at the time of the tragedy they were having dinner. The dining car fell down an embankment and collapsed. The roof of the carriage fell down, but the Russian Tsar, who had a powerful physique and a height of 1.9 meters, put his shoulders up and held the roof until the whole family got out to a safe place. Such a happy ending was perceived by the people as a sign of God's grace. Everyone began to say that now nothing terrible would happen to the Romanov dynasty.

However, Emperor Alexander III died relatively young. His life was cut short on October 20, 1894 in the Livadia Palace (the royal residence in Crimea) from chronic nephritis. The disease caused complications in the blood vessels and heart, and the sovereign died at the age of 49 (read more in the article Death of Alexander III). Emperor Nicholas II Romanov ascended the Russian throne.

Leonid Druzhnikov

V. Klyuchevsky: “Alexander III raised Russian historical thought, Russian national consciousness.”

Education and start of activity

Alexander III (Alexander Alexandrovich Romanov) was born in February 1845. He was the second son of Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna.

His older brother Nikolai Alexandrovich was considered the heir to the throne, so the younger Alexander was preparing for a military career. But the premature death of his older brother in 1865 unexpectedly changed the fate of the 20-year-old young man, who faced the need to succeed to the throne. He had to change his intentions and start getting a more fundamental education. Among Alexander Alexandrovich’s teachers were famous people of that time: historian S. M. Solovyov, J. K. Grot, who taught him the history of literature, M. I. Dragomirov taught him the art of war. But the greatest influence on the future emperor was exerted by the teacher of law K. P. Pobedonostsev, who during the reign of Alexander served as chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod and had great influence on state affairs.

In 1866, Alexander married the Danish princess Dagmara (in Orthodoxy - Maria Fedorovna). Their children: Nicholas (later Russian Emperor Nicholas II), George, Ksenia, Mikhail, Olga. The last family photo taken in Livadia shows from left to right: Tsarevich Nicholas, Grand Duke George, Empress Maria Feodorovna, Grand Duchess Olga, Grand Duke Michael, Grand Duchess Xenia and Emperor Alexander III.

The last family photo of Alexander III

Before his accession to the throne, Alexander Alexandrovich was the ataman of all Cossack troops, was the commander of the troops of the St. Petersburg Military District and the Guards Corps. Since 1868 he was a member of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers. Participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, commanded the Rushchuk detachment in Bulgaria. After the war, he participated in the creation of the Voluntary Fleet, a joint-stock shipping company (together with Pobedonostsev), which was supposed to promote the government’s foreign economic policy.

Emperor's personality

S.K. Zaryanko "Portrait of Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich in a retinue frock coat"

Alexander III was not like his father, neither in appearance, nor in character, nor in habits, nor in his mentality. He was distinguished by his very large height (193 cm) and strength. In his youth, he could bend a coin with his fingers and break a horseshoe. Contemporaries note that he was devoid of external aristocracy: he preferred unpretentiousness in clothing, modesty, was not inclined to comfort, liked to spend his leisure time in a narrow family or friendly circle, was thrifty, and adhered to strict moral rules. S.Yu. Witte described the emperor this way: “He made an impression with his impressiveness, the calmness of his manners and, on the one hand, extreme firmness, and on the other hand, the complacency in his face... in appearance, he looked like a big Russian peasant from the central provinces, he was most approached a suit: short fur coat, jacket and bast shoes; and yet, with his appearance, which reflected his enormous character, beautiful heart, complacency, justice and at the same time firmness, he undoubtedly impressed, and, as I said above, if they had not known that he was an emperor, he would entered the room in any suit - undoubtedly, everyone would pay attention to him.”

He had a negative attitude towards the reforms of his father, Emperor Alexander II, as he saw their unfavorable consequences: the growth of bureaucracy, the plight of the people, imitation of the West, corruption in the government. He had a dislike for liberalism and the intelligentsia. His political ideal: patriarchal-paternal autocratic rule, religious values, strengthening of the class structure, nationally distinctive social development.

The emperor and his family lived mainly in Gatchina due to the threat of terrorism. But he lived for a long time in both Peterhof and Tsarskoe Selo. He didn't really like the Winter Palace.

Alexander III simplified court etiquette and ceremony, reduced the staff of the Ministry of the Court, significantly reduced the number of servants, and introduced strict control over the spending of money. He replaced expensive foreign wines at court with Crimean and Caucasian wines, and limited the number of balls per year to four.

At the same time, the emperor did not spare money to purchase objects of art, which he knew how to appreciate, since in his youth he studied drawing with professor of painting N. I. Tikhobrazov. Later, Alexander Alexandrovich resumed his studies together with his wife Maria Fedorovna under the guidance of academician A.P. Bogolyubov. During his reign, Alexander III, due to his workload, left this occupation, but retained his love for art throughout his life: the emperor collected an extensive collection of paintings, graphics, objects of decorative and applied art, sculptures, which after his death was transferred to the foundation Russian Emperor Nicholas II in memory of his father, Russian Museum.

The emperor was fond of hunting and fishing. Belovezhskaya Pushcha became his favorite hunting spot.

On October 17, 1888, the royal train in which the emperor was traveling crashed near Kharkov. There were casualties among the servants in the seven wrecked carriages, but the royal family remained intact. During the crash, the roof of the dining car collapsed; as is known from eyewitness accounts, Alexander held the roof on his shoulders until his children and wife got out of the carriage and help arrived.

But soon after this, the emperor began to feel pain in his lower back - the concussion from the fall damaged his kidneys. The disease gradually developed. The Emperor began to feel unwell more and more often: his appetite disappeared and heart problems began. Doctors diagnosed him with nephritis. In the winter of 1894, he caught a cold, and the disease quickly began to progress. Alexander III was sent for treatment to Crimea (Livadia), where he died on October 20, 1894.

On the day of the emperor’s death and in the previous last days of his life, Archpriest John of Kronstadt was next to him, who laid his hands on the head of the dying man at his request.

The emperor's body was taken to St. Petersburg and buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.

Domestic policy

Alexander II intended to continue his reforms. The Loris-Melikov project (called the “constitution”) received the highest approval, but on March 1, 1881, the emperor was killed by terrorists, and his successor curtailed the reforms. Alexander III, as mentioned above, did not support the policies of his father; moreover, K. P. Pobedonostsev, who was the leader of the conservative party in the government of the new tsar, had a strong influence on the new emperor.

This is what he wrote to the emperor in the first days after his accession to the throne: “... it’s a terrible hour and time is running out. Either save Russia and yourself now, or never. If they sing the old siren songs to you about how you need to calm down, you need to continue in the liberal direction, you need to give in to so-called public opinion - oh, for God’s sake, don’t believe it, Your Majesty, don’t listen. This will be death, the death of Russia and yours: this is clear to me as day.<…>The insane villains who destroyed your Parent will not be satisfied with any concession and will only become furious. They can be appeased, the evil seed can be torn out only by fighting them to the death and to the stomach, with iron and blood. It is not difficult to win: until now everyone wanted to avoid the fight and deceived the late Emperor, you, themselves, everyone and everything in the world, because they were not people of reason, strength and heart, but flabby eunuchs and magicians.<…>do not leave Count Loris-Melikov. I don't believe him. He is a magician and can also play doubles.<…>The new policy must be announced immediately and decisively. It is necessary to end at once, right now, all talk about freedom of the press, about the willfulness of meetings, about a representative assembly<…>».

After the death of Alexander II, a struggle developed between liberals and conservatives in the government; at a meeting of the Committee of Ministers, the new emperor, after some hesitation, nevertheless accepted the project drawn up by Pobedonostsev, which is known as the Manifesto on the Inviolability of Autocracy. This was a departure from the previous liberal course: liberal-minded ministers and dignitaries (Loris-Melikov, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich, Dmitry Milyutin) resigned; Ignatiev (Slavophile) became the head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs; he issued a circular that read: “... the great and broadly conceived transformations of the past Reign did not bring all the benefits that the Tsar-Liberator had the right to expect from them. The Manifesto of April 29 indicates to us that the Supreme Power has measured the enormity of the evil from which our Fatherland is suffering and has decided to begin to eradicate it...”

The government of Alexander III pursued a policy of counter-reforms that limited the liberal reforms of the 1860s and 70s. A new University Charter was issued in 1884, which abolished the autonomy of higher education. The entry into gymnasiums of children of the lower classes was limited (“circular about cooks’ children,” 1887). Since 1889, peasant self-government began to be subordinate to zemstvo chiefs from local landowners, who combined administrative and judicial power in their hands. Zemstvo (1890) and city (1892) regulations tightened the administration's control over local self-government and limited the rights of voters from the lower strata of the population.

During his coronation in 1883, Alexander III announced to the volost elders: “Follow the advice and guidance of your leaders of the nobility.” This meant the protection of the class rights of the noble landowners (the establishment of the Noble Land Bank, the adoption of the Regulations on Hiring for Agricultural Work, which was beneficial for the landowners), strengthening of administrative guardianship over the peasantry, conservation of the community and the large patriarchal family. Attempts have been made to enhance the public role Orthodox Church(the spread of parochial schools), repression against Old Believers and sectarians intensified. On the outskirts, a policy of Russification was carried out, the rights of foreigners (especially Jews) were limited. A percentage norm was established for Jews in secondary and then higher educational institutions (within the Pale of Settlement - 10%, outside the Pale - 5, in the capitals - 3%). A policy of Russification was pursued. In the 1880s. Instruction in Russian was introduced in Polish universities (previously, after the uprising of 1862-1863, it was introduced there in schools). In Poland, Finland, the Baltic states, and Ukraine, the Russian language was introduced in institutions, on railways, on posters, etc.

But the reign of Alexander III was not characterized only by counter-reforms. Redemption payments were lowered, the mandatory redemption of peasant plots was legalized, and a peasant land bank was established to enable peasants to obtain loans to purchase land. In 1886, the poll tax was abolished, and an inheritance and interest tax were introduced. In 1882, restrictions were introduced on factory work by minors, as well as on night work by women and children. At the same time, the police regime and class privileges of the nobility were strengthened. Already in 1882-1884, new rules were issued on the press, libraries and reading rooms, called temporary, but in force until 1905. This was followed by a number of measures expanding the benefits of the landed nobility - the law on escheat of noble property (1883), the organization long-term loan for noble landowners, in the form of the establishment of a noble land bank (1885), instead of the all-class land bank projected by the Minister of Finance.

I. Repin "Reception of volost elders by Alexander III in the courtyard of the Petrovsky Palace in Moscow"

During the reign of Alexander III, 114 new military vessels were built, including 17 battleships and 10 armored cruisers; The Russian fleet ranked third in the world after England and France. The army and the military department were put in order after their disorganization during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which was facilitated by the complete trust shown to Minister Vannovsky and the chief of the main staff Obruchev by the emperor, who did not allow outside interference in their activities.

The influence of Orthodoxy in the country increased: the number of church periodicals increased, the circulation of spiritual literature increased; parishes closed during the previous reign were restored, intensive construction of new churches was underway, the number of dioceses within Russia increased from 59 to 64.

During the reign of Alexander III, there was a sharp decrease in protests, in comparison with the second half of the reign of Alexander II, and a decline in the revolutionary movement in the mid-80s. Terrorist activity has also decreased. After the assassination of Alexander II, there was only one successful attempt by Narodnaya Volya (1882) on the Odessa prosecutor Strelnikov and a failed attempt (1887) on Alexander III. After this, there were no more terrorist attacks in the country until the beginning of the 20th century.

Foreign policy

During the reign of Alexander III, Russia did not wage a single war. For this Alexander III received the name Peacemaker.

The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander III:

Balkan policy: strengthening Russia's position.

Peaceful relations with all countries.

Search for loyal and reliable allies.

Determination of the southern borders of Central Asia.

Politics in the new territories of the Far East.

After the 5-century Turkish yoke as a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Bulgaria gained its statehood in 1879 and became a constitutional monarchy. Russia expected to find an ally in Bulgaria. At first it was like this: the Bulgarian Prince A. Battenberg pursued a friendly policy towards Russia, but then Austrian influence began to prevail, and in May 18881 a coup d’etat took place in Bulgaria, led by Battenberg himself - he abolished the constitution and became an unlimited ruler, pursuing a pro-Austrian policy. The Bulgarian people did not approve of this and did not support Battenberg; Alexander III demanded the restoration of the constitution. In 1886 A. Battenberg abdicated the throne. In order to prevent Turkish influence on Bulgaria again, Alexander III advocated strict compliance with the Berlin Treaty; invited Bulgaria to solve its own problems in foreign policy, recalled the Russian military without interfering in Bulgarian-Turkish affairs. Although the Russian ambassador in Constantinople announced to the Sultan that Russia would not allow a Turkish invasion. In 1886, diplomatic relations were severed between Russia and Bulgaria.

N. Sverchkov "Portrait of Emperor Alexander III in the uniform of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment"

At the same time, Russia's relations with England are becoming more complicated as a result of clashes of interests in Central Asia, the Balkans and Turkey. At the same time, relations between Germany and France were also becoming complicated, so France and Germany began to look for opportunities for rapprochement with Russia in case of war between themselves - it was provided for in the plans of Chancellor Bismarck. But Emperor Alexander III kept William I from attacking France using family ties, and in 1891 a Russian-French alliance was concluded for as long as the Triple Alliance existed. The agreement had a high degree of secrecy: Alexander III warned the French government that if the secret was disclosed, the alliance would be dissolved.

In Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Kokand Khanate, the Bukhara Emirate, the Khiva Khanate were annexed, and the annexation of the Turkmen tribes continued. During the reign of Alexander III, the territory of the Russian Empire increased by 430 thousand square meters. km. This was the end of the expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire. Russia avoided war with England. In 1885, an agreement was signed on the creation of Russian-British military commissions to determine the final borders of Russia and Afghanistan.

At the same time, Japan's expansion was intensifying, but it was difficult for Russia to conduct military operations in that area due to the lack of roads and Russia's weak military potential. In 1891, construction of the Great Siberian Railway began in Russia - the Chelyabinsk-Omsk-Irkutsk-Khabarovsk-Vladivostok railway line (approx. 7 thousand km). This could dramatically increase Russia's forces in the Far East.

Results of the board

During the 13 years of the reign of Emperor Alexander III (1881–1894), Russia made a strong economic breakthrough, created industry, rearmed the Russian army and navy, and became the world's largest exporter of agricultural products. It is very important that Russia lived in peace throughout the years of Alexander III’s reign.

The years of the reign of Emperor Alexander III are associated with the flourishing of Russian national culture, art, music, literature and theater. He was a wise philanthropist and collector.

During difficult times for him, P.I. Tchaikovsky repeatedly received financial support from the emperor, which is noted in the composer’s letters.

S. Diaghilev believed that for Russian culture Alexander III was the best of the Russian monarchs. It was under him that Russian literature, painting, music and ballet began to flourish. Great art, which later glorified Russia, began under Emperor Alexander III.

He played an outstanding role in the development of historical knowledge in Russia: under him, the Russian Imperial Historical Society, of which he was chairman, began to actively work. The Emperor was the creator and founder of the Historical Museum in Moscow.

On the initiative of Alexander, a patriotic museum was created in Sevastopol, the main exhibition of which was the Panorama of the Sevastopol Defense.

Under Alexander III, the first university was opened in Siberia (Tomsk), a project was prepared for the creation of the Russian Archaeological Institute in Constantinople, the Russian Imperial Palestine Society began to operate, and Orthodox churches in many European cities and in the East.

The greatest works of science, culture, art, literature, from the reign of Alexander III are the great achievements of Russia, of which we are still proud.

“If Emperor Alexander III had been destined to continue reigning for as many years as he reigned, then his reign would have been one of the greatest reigns of the Russian Empire” (S.Yu. Witte).

It is precisely such kings that today’s monarchists sigh about. Perhaps they are right. Alexander III was truly great. Both a man and an emperor.

“It’s biting me!”

However, some dissidents of that time, including Vladimir Lenin, joked quite wickedly at the emperor. In particular, they nicknamed him “Pineapple”. True, Alexander himself gave the reason for this. In the manifesto “On Our Accession to the Throne” dated April 29, 1881, it was clearly stated: “And entrust the Sacred Duty to Us.” So, when the document was read out, the king inevitably turned into an exotic fruit.

In fact, it is unfair and dishonest. Alexander was distinguished by amazing strength. He could easily break a horseshoe. He could easily bend silver coins in his palms. He could lift a horse on his shoulders. And even force him to sit like a dog - this is recorded in the memoirs of his contemporaries. At a dinner in the Winter Palace, when the Austrian ambassador started talking about how his country was ready to form three corps of soldiers against Russia, he bent and tied a fork. He threw it towards the ambassador. And he said: “This is what I will do with your buildings.”

The heir, Tsarevich Alexander Alexandrovich, with his wife, Tsarevna and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna, St. Petersburg, late 1860s. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org

Height - 193 cm. Weight - more than 120 kg. It is not surprising that a peasant, who accidentally saw the emperor at the railway station, exclaimed: “This is the king, the king, damn me!” The wicked man was immediately seized for “uttering indecent words in the presence of the sovereign.” However, Alexander ordered the foul-mouthed man to be released. Moreover, he awarded him a ruble with his own image: “Here’s my portrait for you!”

And his look? Beard? Crown? Remember the cartoon "The Magic Ring"? “I’m drinking tea.” Damn samovar! Each device has three pounds of sieve bread!” It's all about him. He really could eat 3 pounds of sieve bread at tea, that is, about 1.5 kg.

At home he liked to wear a simple Russian shirt. But definitely with sewing on the sleeves. He tucked his pants into his boots, like a soldier. Even at official receptions he allowed himself to wear worn trousers, a jacket or a sheepskin coat.

His phrase is often repeated: “While the Russian Tsar is fishing, Europe can wait.” In reality it was like this. Alexander was very correct. But he really loved fishing and hunting. That's why when German Ambassador demanded an immediate meeting, Alexander said: “It’s biting! It's biting me! Germany can wait. I’ll see you tomorrow at noon.”

Right at heart

During his reign, conflicts with Great Britain began. Dr. Watson, the hero of the famous novel about Sherlock Holmes, was wounded in Afghanistan. And, apparently, in a battle with the Russians. There is a documented episode. A Cossack patrol detained a group of Afghan smugglers. They had two Englishmen with them - instructors. The patrol commander, Esaul Pankratov, shot the Afghans. And he ordered the British to be expelled outside the Russian Empire. True, I first flogged them with whips.

In an audience with the British ambassador, Alexander said:

I will not allow attacks on our people and our territory.

The ambassador replied:

This could cause an armed clash with England!

The king calmly remarked:

Well... We'll probably manage.

And he mobilized the Baltic Fleet. It was 5 times smaller than the forces that the British had at sea. And yet the war did not happen. The British calmed down and gave up their positions in Central Asia.

After that English Home Secretary Disraeli called Russia “a huge, monstrous, terrible bear that hangs over Afghanistan and India. And our interests in the world."

One can indeed yearn for such a sovereign. Alexander's older brother Nikolai(he died without ascending the throne) said about the future emperor: “A pure, truthful, crystal soul. There's something wrong with the rest of us, foxes. Alexander alone is truthful and correct in soul.”

In Europe, they talked about his death in much the same way: “We are losing an arbiter who was always guided by the idea of ​​justice.”

The greatest deeds of Alexander III

The emperor is credited, and, apparently, with good reason, with the invention of the flat flask. And not just flat, but bent, the so-called “booter”. Alexander loved to drink, but did not want others to know about his addictions. A flask of this shape is ideal for secret use.

It is he who owns the slogan, for which today one can seriously pay: “Russia is for Russians.” Nevertheless, his nationalism was not aimed at bullying national minorities. In any case, the Jewish deputation headed by Baron Gunzburg expressed to the emperor “infinite gratitude for the measures taken to protect Jewish population These are difficult times."

The construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway has begun - so far this is almost the only transport artery that somehow connects the whole of Russia. The Emperor also established Railway Worker's Day. Even the Soviet government did not cancel it, despite the fact that Alexander set the date of the holiday on the birthday of his grandfather Nicholas I, during whom the construction of railways began in our country.

Actively fought corruption. Not in words, but in deeds. Minister of Railways Krivoshein and Minister of Finance Abaza were sent into dishonorable resignation for taking bribes. He did not bypass his relatives either - due to corruption, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich and Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich were deprived of their posts.

Russian Emperor (1881-1894), son of Alexander II, father of Nicholas II.

Early years, family

Alexander Alexandrovich was the second son in the family, so his elder brother Nikolai should have inherited the throne, but he died in 1865 and Alexander became the new heir. Among his teachers was S.M. Soloviev, who taught Russian history, as well as K.P. Pobedonostsev, who taught law and became a mentor and adviser for the future tsar.

On October 28 (November 9), 1866, the marriage of Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich and the Danish princess Dagmara (in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna) took place. They had six children: Nicholas (1868-1918), the future emperor, Alexander (1869-1870), George (1871-1899), Ksenia (1875-1960), Mikhail (1878-1918), Olga (1882-1960) . Soon after the wedding, the heir to the throne began to become involved in state affairs.

After the tragic death of Alexander II on March 1, 1881, Alexander III ascended the throne - a taciturn, decisive, very self-confident man of the most conservative convictions. The beginning of his reign was marked by the struggle against the revolutionary movement. Suffice it to say that the coronation of the new sovereign took place only in May 1883, when it became clear that the defeated “People's Will” was no longer capable of serious action. The desire to maximally strengthen the autocratic system in general determined in many respects domestic policy this reign. At the same time, the government of Alexander III, taking into account the objective needs of the time, took serious measures to develop the Russian economy. Foreign policy Alexander III, referred to in official literature as the “Peacemaker,” was distinguished by restraint, caution, and a desire to avoid war.

Domestic policy

Alexander III very clearly expressed his convictions about what the state he ruled should be like immediately after ascending the throne in the manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy,” published in April 1881: it stated that the tsar would resolutely protect his power “from any attempts on her.” In the development of a specific policy in this protective direction, the chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod, K.P., who was close to the tsar, played a large role. Pobedonostsev and conservative-minded journalist, publisher of Russian Messenger M.N. Katkov. The direct promoter of this policy was D.A. Tolstoy, who took the post of Minister of Internal Affairs in 1882. In his narrowness and at the same time unshakability of his views, perseverance and strong will, he was like the king himself.

The protective direction of the tsarist government was expressed in two ways. On the one hand, the government sought to strengthen its position and expand its already seemingly immense powers. On the other hand, to maximally support our main, if not the only, reliable social support - the local nobility, which was experiencing after the reforms Hard times. In both cases, the government sought to “correct”, and in fact, neutralize the consequences of the reforms of the previous reign. The definition of this course as a “policy of counter-reforms” seems quite accurate.

One of the first measures in the spirit of this policy was the “Regulations on measures to protect state security and public peace,” approved by Alexander III in August 1881. In accordance with it, the government in any province, on the proposal of local authorities, could introduce a state of emergency. As a result, the powers of these authorities increased significantly; In the province, ordinary laws practically ceased to apply, at least partially restraining administrative arbitrariness. Thus, the governor received the opportunity to arrest everyone he considered necessary, exile without trial for up to 5 years to any part of the empire, and bring him before a military court. He was given the right to close any educational institutions and press organs, dissolve public organizations and suspend the activities of zemstvos - and all this “at his own discretion.” Initially, the state of emergency was introduced for 1.5 years, but it was not difficult to renew it. Naturally, the provincial authorities grabbed this gift with both hands: many areas of the Russian Empire remained in this “state of emergency” for decades.

As for the local nobility, the government tried to strengthen its power locally. The most significant measures taken in this direction were the creation of the structure of zemstvo chiefs (1889) and the zemstvo counter-reform (1890).

Zemstvo chiefs stood at the head of the zemstvo section (there were 4-5 such sections in each district). They were appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs from the local hereditary nobility - and they were supposed to deal with purely peasant affairs. All representatives of the elected peasant government - ten's, sot's, and volost elders - obeyed them unconditionally. Monitoring the observance of order, the collection of taxes, and the provision of military service, zemstvo commanders received the right to fine peasants, subject them to corporal punishment, and put them under arrest. Thus, the authorities sought to at least partially restore the patrimonial power of the landowner over the peasants, lost as a result of the abolition of serfdom.

The zemstvo counter-reform also pursued similar goals: it was, in essence, about complete subordination of zemstvo self-government to the noble landowners. For the landowning curia, the property qualification was halved, while for the urban curia it was significantly increased. The peasant curia generally lost the right independent choice: final decision the governor accepted the proposed candidates; this made it possible to cut off “screamers and troublemakers” from zemstvo activities. In its final result, the counter-reform ensured the complete and unconditional predominance of representatives of the noble landowners in the zemstvos.

In pursuing such a policy, the government of Alexander III had to take into account the fact that the landed nobility in the conditions of post-reform Russia was en masse becoming impoverished and going bankrupt. Therefore, the authorities also provided him with financial support: in 1885, the Noble Bank was established, which gave significant sums of money to landowners on preferential terms.

The government acted very consistently in the field of education. First of all, it sought to establish the strictest administrative control here. Thus, in 1884, a new university charter was introduced, which in all its spirit opposed the previous charter of 1863. The autonomy of these higher educational institutions was almost completely eliminated: the rector, deans, professors, previously elected, were now appointed. All attempts by students to declare themselves as a certain community were considered illegal: the university authorities were obliged to fight student associations, mutual aid funds, and canteens on an artel basis. The student uniform, abolished in 1863, was reintroduced, making it easier to supervise students.

The authorities sought to introduce the strictest discipline, the violation of which could lead to expulsion, in gymnasiums. In addition, there was an increasingly noticeable tendency to make access to secondary education more difficult for the “common people.” This was most clearly manifested in the circular of the Minister of Education D.A. Tolstoy from 1887, which became infamous as the circular “about cooks’ children.” In accordance with it, it was forbidden to admit to the gymnasium “the children of coachmen, footmen, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like.”

As for primary education, then here the government tried to create a counterbalance to zemstvo schools, whose teaching staff it did not trust; At this time, all possible support is provided to parochial schools, the network of which is significantly expanding.

Finally, special attention was paid to censorship: already in 1882, “Temporary Rules” were adopted, according to which editors of newspapers and magazines, at the first request of the authorities, had to report the names of the authors of articles published under pseudonyms. Much more often than before, the government begins to exercise its right to close a periodical after three warnings. Only in 1883-1884 were the magazines “Otechestvennye zapiski” and “Delo” and the newspapers “Golos”, “Zemstvo”, “Strana” closed in this way.

A noticeable phenomenon in the activities of the government of Alexander III was the policy of Russification of the national borderlands. Since 1883, all government agencies and officials were required to conduct office work only in Russian. Since 1885, teaching in secondary schools throughout the empire was translated into Russian. Since 1889, legal proceedings also switched to Russian - although petitions to the courts were still accepted in all local languages.

Consistently pursuing a policy of a protective nature, the government of Alexander III also took a number of measures to alleviate the situation of the lower strata - the working population, which can be described as a policy of guardianship. Such activities of the authorities are associated, first of all, with the name of the Minister of Finance N.H. Bunge, who tried to raise the standard of living, which was catastrophically low among a significant part of the peasants and workers. On his initiative, the poll tax was gradually abolished, compensating for it with indirect taxes and income taxes. In 1882, the Peasant Bank was established, which gave loans to peasants to purchase land. True, due to enough high percentage Few could take advantage of these loans. The authorities began to pursue a resettlement policy more actively than before, providing immigrants with certain benefits. At the same time, she continued to strongly support the community, which made it difficult for the peasants to control the land.

The guardianship policy was especially evident in the labor issue. It was under Alexander III that labor legislation was introduced, which significantly limited the previously unrestrained exploitation of this segment of the population by entrepreneurs. In 1882, the employment of children under 12 years of age in production was prohibited, and the work of children from 12 to 15 years of age was limited to 8 hours. In 1885, night labor for children and women was prohibited. In 1886, a labor law was introduced that sharply limited fines for workers, which employers had previously levied exorbitantly; moreover, they now went not into the owner’s pocket, but into a special fund from which workers received benefits in case of illness or injury at work. Pay books were introduced for workers, where the conditions of their employment were recorded. Compliance with all these laws was to be monitored by a factory inspection created specifically for this purpose.

It should be noted that, while patronizing the workers, the government of Alexander III pursued at the same time a policy promoting the development of industrial production in Russia. While shielding domestic producers from foreign competition with the help of high customs duties, it, on the other hand, in every possible way contributed to the influx of foreign capital into Russian industry. And the government did not spare public funds, willingly providing subsidies and tax breaks to large entrepreneurs. As a result, industrial production in the 1880s it began to develop at a faster pace than before, and in the 1890s, already under the successor of Alexander III, Nicholas II, this development took on the character of a real industrial boom.

Foreign policy

During the reign of Alexander III, fundamental changes occurred in Russia's foreign policy. At this time, it is becoming increasingly clear that Germany, which Russia is accustomed to considering as a reliable ally, is turning into a dangerous enemy before our very eyes. This young state, which arose as a result of the unification of scattered German lands by Prussia, quickly grew stronger, intensively developing industrial production. Feeling strong, Germany began to struggle to expand its influence in the world. At the same time, German interests collided with Russian interests. In 1882, a secret treaty was concluded between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, called the Triple Alliance. True, at first this alliance had not so much an anti-Russian as an anti-French orientation. However, it soon became clear that the two main players - Germany and Austria-Hungary - were united in their desire to oust Russia from the region that it traditionally considered its sphere of influence - the Balkans. In 1886, in particular, a coup took place in Bulgaria, as a result of which Tsar Alexander Battenberg, who sympathized with Russia, was overthrown, and his place was taken by the Austrian officer Ferdinand Coburg, who unconditionally subordinated the foreign and domestic policy of Bulgaria to German and Austro-Hungarian interests.

In addition to Balkan affairs, economic contradictions increasingly flared up between Russia and Germany. The protectionist policy consistently pursued by Russia hit German entrepreneurs hard at this time, primarily in the field of mechanical engineering, who were literally eager to enter the Russian market. In turn, Germany over and over again increased duties on agricultural products, thereby infringing on the interests of Russian landowners. In the early 1890s, this confrontation escalated to such an extent that it even received the name “customs war.”

Under these conditions, the government of Alexander III intensively searched for a new ally. As a result, there was a rapprochement with Germany's traditional enemy - France. It was made easier by the fact that, unlike Germany, which tried to import primarily industrial products into Russia, France imported capital here, investing it in industrial development. In addition, since the late 1880s, the Russian government began to take large amounts of money from France. cash loans, which are also invested mainly in the development of production.

Preparations for the conclusion of a Russian-French union treaty began in 1891; it was concluded in 1893. Under the agreement, which was military in nature, both parties assumed specific obligations in the event of an attack on one of them by the powers of the Triple Alliance. France pledged to field 1,300 thousand soldiers, Russia - 800 thousand.

Thus, by the end of the 19th century, all the great powers, except England, which took a wait-and-see attitude, “dispersed” into two hostile camps. For some time, this stabilized the foreign policy situation and strengthened Russia's position, but in the future it turned out to be fraught with serious conflicts, which ultimately led to the First World War.