Foreign policy. After World War II, the alignment of forces in the international arena changed dramatically. New alignment of forces on the world stage New alignment of political forces in the international arena

46.On the alignment of political forces in the world after World War II.

The international situation after the 2nd World War was characterized by the strengthening of the positions of the Soviet Union. The sphere of Soviet influence included Finland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Albania.

Of the six Great States of the Western world, only two are the United Kingdom (although the colonial system collapse) and the United States have survived.

People's democratic revolutions occur in Central and Eastern Europe during which, with the support of the USSR, communist parties come to power. During the first three to four post-war years, a block of communist states of Eastern and Southeast Europe has united. The world socialist system arises.

In 1949 The Chinese Communists won in many years of civil war and proclaimed the creation of the People's Republic of China. At the borders of the USSR there was a huge centralized Chinese state with a population, superior to the population of the USSR more than three times.

The task associated with the fastening of victory over racism is consistently solved. In the first postwar years there is a training of peaceful conversations with the former allies of Germany. The final coordination of the texts of peace treaties was carried out at the Paris Peace Conference (July-October 1946). 21 state participated. The main problem, which was considered at this conference is the eradication of fascism, prevent the revival of fascism. The contract included articles prohibiting the activities of fascist organizations. Peaceful conversations established post-war territorial changes. A number of articles of peace treaties established the limitations of the armed forces of the defeated states and obliged them to partially compensate the damage caused by the economies of the parties.

March 5, 1946 The former head of the Government of Churchill spoke with a speech in the American city of Fulton, with a call to unite in the English-language states, which symbolized the beginning of the "Cold War". The world began a mad arms race, because Each of the parties (socialism, capitalism) wanted to provide its military advantage. The Soviet Union mobilized huge tools for creating an atomic bomb and quickly was spent on this from the United States. The arms race, political confrontation on all issues between two opposite systems, created an extremely tense and dangerous situation in tormented by military conflicts.

In April 1949 The North Atlantic Union (NATO) was created - the Military Political Block, which included the United States, England, France, Italy, Canada, Belgium, Holland, Portugal, and others. States of Western Europe.

The NATO policy was aimed at undermine the increasing influence of socialist countries, expand the domination of the United States and Western countries in the world. The creation of this block significantly complicated the international situation, contributed to the strengthening of the Cold War.

In the post-war period, one of the most acute issues in international politics remained the German question. The Soviet Union has consistently implemented a program of three "D": demilitarization, democratization, denatization.

Western countries refuse to fulfill the agreed decision of the German problem. In the western zones of Germany, the three "d" program was not implemented. In violation of the commitments of the United States and England concluded 2.12.1946. Agreement on combining its occupation zones. This led to the split of the German state, and on September 7, 1949. The proclamation of the Federal Republic of Germany. In May 1952 A contract was signed on the establishment of a European defensive community with the participation of Germany and Western states, which meant the creation of its army in Germany and the inclusion of it in the "European Army". This step meant demilitarization of West Germany.

After the Second World War, the collapse of the colonial system began. The United States began to penetrate the regions that were under war under the control of England, France, and other states. Acute rivalry turned in the Middle and Middle East. The rivalry between Israel and Arab countries exacerbates.

In 1947 The session of the UN General Assembly was decided to create two states in Palestine - Arabic and Jewish. 05/14/1948 Part of Palestine was proclaimed by the Jewish state of Israel. Soon there is a conflict between Israel and Arab states. In the course of hostilities, Israel seizes part of the Arab territory of Palestine.

One of the outcomes of the Second World War was the liberation of Korea from Japanese occupation. The Soviet Union was removed in 1945. His troops from North Korea, where the Korean People's Democratic Republic was formed. The south of the 38th parallel (by agreement between the United States and the USSR, the borders of hostilities in the Far East took place on the 38th parallels) the Korean Republic was proclaimed with pro-American

government. At the 38th parallels, armed clashes were continuously held, which broke out in the war between the North and South.

The military tribune struggle for peace and international security after the war becomes the UN, which has started its work in January 1946.

After the war, the organized movement of fighters for the world originated and developed. The movement of world supporters was covered by all continents and countries of the globe.

Thus, the alignment of political forces in the world was characterized by confrontation of two systems (socialism and capitalism), regional conflicts, creating a mechanism for resolving foci of tension.

The geopolitical situation in Europe and in the world after the First World War has undergone significant changes. The system of world equilibrium of the post-war period violated two factors: the Versailles of Germany in the humiliating conditions, and the 1917 revolution in Russia. Both factors will become the source of new social turmoils and the Second World War: the first because such humiliation of a whole nation could not help but push it to the Revenge sentiment; The second is due to the policies of the Bolsheviks who have led Russia to international isolation (as a result of refusing to pay the debts of the royal government and the separatic exit from the war) and proclaimed the course to the world proletarian revolution.

The Versailles Treaty put Germany in an extremely difficult situation, in fact - in international isolation. This was facilitated by the policy of powered winners who put it in an unequal position in the European Community and the policy of Soviet Russia, which was in a similar position and therefore, as it were, the "natural allied" of Germany, which took advantage of the situation and, blackmailing the winner of the possibility of folding German - Soviet Union, forced them to go to certain concessions. Another reason for France, England and the United States to wish the economic revival of Germany was that the poor country in which Germany turned into, simply could not pay huge reparations entrusted to her.

France turned out to be in the most severe condition: having lost its natural continental ally - Russia, she received the neighborhood potentially more dangerous than the opponent's war - Germany. In addition, the French worried Soviet-German rapprochement. For 20 - 30s. France will try to correct the situation by creating a system of unions with "small" countries in Europe (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania). All this is, together with the position of England, having more moderate views on the position of Germany (caused by the unwillingness from the UK of the French prevalence on the continent), it made it difficult to achieve the main goal of France's foreign policy - to preserve the situation in Europe in the form in which it was formed after World War.

The only country that war brought positive changes was the United States of America, which turned from the European debtor in the largest lender. In American foreign policy there were two directions: traditional - insulating, - and new, internationalist. Supporters of the first insisted on the refusal of "automatic" participation in European affairs and extreme caution in matters of international obligations. Supporters of the second talked about the "historical mission" of the United States, calling them the world's first free country and stronghold of democracy, whose mission is to carry the light of a liberal idea to all countries and peoples. The struggle of these directions ended with the victory of internationalists. As a result, the interwar world was arranged in such a way that practically no serious problem of European politics could be solved without American participation. The United States continued to invest in Europe in peacetime, which, combined with protectionism policies in relation to European goods, which closed them access to the US domestic market, also adversely affected the European situation.

Naturally, the United States could not not offer its version of the decision of the German issue. Such a plan was the Dowes Reparation Plan, which was to ensure the continuation of the payments of Germany of reparations (and simultaneously opened the German market for America as much as possible). The most important task was the stabilization of the German brand by granting Germany a loan of $ 200 million (of which more than half accounted for American banks). This plan established the amount of payment of Germany and the control of allies over the German state budget, finance and railways. In 1929, due to the slow restoration of the German economy, this plan was recycled. The new plan (Jung plan) envisage some decline in annual payments and the elimination of foreign control bodies. The adoption of the Young Plan had one remote, but very important consequence: it was during his approval that an agreement was reached on the conclusion of the Allied troops from the Rhine Region. This happened in the summer of 1930 and allowed Hitler in March 1936 to introduce German troops there.

The First World War brought to the number of active players of the world political Arena, Japan, which became a powerful dominant in Asia and in the Pacific Ocean. For decades, lagging behind the Western countries in the technological plan, she needed colonies, where could export their products, without fear of competition of Western goods. The clash of interests with the United States and the United Kingdom led to the gap of the Anglo-Japanese Union in 1921; As for the United States, for them, Japan never ceased to be a potential enemy. All this led to the rapprochement of Japan with Germany, which was the consequence of their union in World War II.

All the 20s were a sign of the debts of allies to each other and the reparation payments they had to get from Germany. The main lender was the United States, and the main debtors - France, Italy, Belgium and the United Kingdom. And when the United States demanded the return of debts, the allies offered to fully or partly write off their debt, arguing that the provision of loans and was an American contribution to the victory over Germany. And although the United States understood the definite justice of such statements, there was no such solution to the problem in any way. Negotiations on this issue lasted four years (from 1922 to 1926) and ended with the agreement providing for the return of $ 2.6 billion, that is, a little more than a quarter of the initially requested amount.

As for the problem of reparations, there were serious contradictions between allies, and, above all, in the question of the dependence of intersportal debts from the payments of German reparations: France considered them toughly interrelated and assumed to pay their debts from what she receives from Germany, and the United States And Britain considered German reparations with a separate problem. Moreover, the United Kingdom believed more importantly, the ruin and so already suffered from the war in Germany with the help of reparations inhibits the restoration of the European industry as a whole and reduces international commodities. However, France categorically insisted on reparations. A similar rigid position of France can be explained by the fact that, in comparison with the United Kingdom and the United States, it suffered much more from Germany - at least because military operations directly conducted on its territory.

Numerous attempts to achieve a compromise in this issue did not lead to success, and on December 26, 1922 the reparation commission of three votes against one stated the fact of non-fulfillment of its reparational obligations and as a result of which Germany declared a default, which (according to the Versailles) gave the right of France to occupy the Rhine Zone And Rur. In the meantime, social inequality and unemployment grew in Germany. An autiversal sentiment was superimposed on the usual social tensions in such conditions: the Germans accused the great powers in their intention to finally ruin the country with reparations. The discharge of the situation did not contribute to the desire of the Communists to subjugate these anti-government and anti-spin moods to themselves and send them to the revolutionary direction. All this was accompanied by an increase in anti-Semitism, partly provoked by the influx of rich Jewish immigrants from Poland in Germany (where, with Pilsudsky mode, anti-Semitism was hardly a state policy). Since this emigration coincided with the deterioration of the economic situation in Germany, this was accused of who came.

The occupation of the Rhine zone grew the situation to the limit, which resulted in armed uprisings and performances of both the left and right forces, which, however, were poorly prepared and suppressed. As a result, a state of emergency was introduced in the country. The United Kingdom and the United States accused the exacerbation of the situation in Germany France and put it before the threat of isolation, signed with Germany at the end of 1923 agreements on the provision of loans. From now on, in its confrontation with France, Germany could count on the aid of London and Washington.

The shocks caused by the consequences of the First World War were lightened to 1924. At this time, important changes are beginning to occur in the world related to the change in the role and place of the social-democratic movement in the socio-political life of states. This was manifested by the "entering the power" of social democratic parties, or included in a number of coalition governments, or even formed them on their own, and the strengthening of the influence of the ideas of reformism in the ranks of Social Democracy. Both of these moments were as a consequence and the reason that the theory and practice of social democratic parties have increasingly acquired the reformist orientation with an emphasis on the gradual peaceful transformation of the capitalist society to the socialist. By its main task, the leaders of Social Democracy considered the work of the Parliamentary System and the restructuring of the capitalist economy by "equal business cooperation" between workers and entrepreneurs, as well as using the adoption of social legislation.

Representatives of the same communist parties absolisted the tendencies of the acute crisis of capitalism, on the basis of which they demanded an immediate armed and uncompromising struggle for power. Most of these parties united to the Communist International (Comintern) were under the strong influence of WCP (b), which caused such a position.

The change in the role of social democracy in the political life of European states was evidence of the growing crisis of traditional forms of statehood in the post-warming process of Europe. However, if in countries with the established traditions of bourgeois democracy, this process was peacefully enough, then in countries where democratic traditions have not yet managed to root, the liberal-reformist path of changes in the political structure of society turned out to be extremely difficult, or at all impossible. Here, the place of social democracy often occupied reactionary mass movements, which ultimately led to the elimination of bourgeois democracy and the establishment of totalitarian dictatorship of various senses (fascism) or other, more traditional forms of authoritarian dictatorial regimes.

In general, we can say that in the 20s there were two tendencies in the political development of states: the liberal-reformist (based on the further development of parliamentary democracy, the implementation of reforms and attracting the leaders of the Socialist or Social Democratic Parties to the highest authorities); Totalitarian associated with the establishment of fascist and other dictatorial regimes.

The Second World War led to indigenous changes in the world and international relations. Fascist Germany and Italy, Militarist Japan were defeated, military criminals were punished, an international organization was established - the United Nations. All of this demonstrated the relative cohesion of the winning powers.

War led to sharp changes on the world map. First of all, the gigants intensified the United States in an economic, military and political relationship. The United States has become the leader of the Western world.

Military and political influence of the USSR significantly increased. Economic ruin due to war was compensated by military and political advantages. In general, the position of the USSR changed: it came out of international isolation and became a recognized Great Power.

However, with the disappearance of a fascist threat, more and more contradictions between the former allies began to appear. The collision of their geopolitical interests soon led to the collapse of the coalition and the creation of hostile blocks. Allied relations have been preserved for about 1947. However, in 1945, serious contradictions were discovered, primarily in the struggle for influence in Europe.

W. Churchill March 5, 1946 In the city of Fulton (USA), in the presence of the President of Truman, first openly accused the USSR in the fact that he burned down the Eastern Europe "Iron Curtain", called for the organization of pressure on Russia in order to achieve from it both foreign policy concessions and changes in internal policy. It was a call for open and tough confrontation with the Soviet Union. A year later, Truman officially announced the obligations of the United States in Europe to curb the Soviet expansion and headed the wrestling of West with the Soviet Union.

The main focus of the Soviet leadership was focused on the spherical block in Europe. The formation of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe went parallel to the enhancement of confrontation with the West. The turning point was 1947, when the Soviet leadership refused to participate in the Marshall Plan (which concerned Europe's economic recovery) and forced other Eastern European countries.

In 1949, the split of Germany was drawn up into two states - GDR and Germany. In the same year, NATO block under the auspices of the United States is created. The USSR responded to this alternative to the Marshall Plan - the creation of the Council of Economic Mutual Assistance (SEV), operating in Eastern Europe and the creation of the organization of the Warsaw Treaty (ATS).

The confrontation between the two blocks turned around both in Europe (Berlin crisis of 1948) and in Asia (the victory of the Communists in China in 1949, the Korean War of 1950-1953, the beginning of decolonization).

43. "Cold War": concept, reasons, stages

The term "Cold War" belonged to the American diplomat D.F. Dulles and was mentioned in 1947 he determined the "Cold War" as the art of balancing on the verge of war. There are various points of view regarding and the date of its start (the death of F. Roosevelt, the use of atomic weapons, the performance of U. Churchill in Fulton in March 1946). The "Cold War" was largely the result of the misunderstanding of the plans of the parties. I.V. Stalin believed that imperialism generates war. Since it persists, the third world war is inevitable. At the same time, the "Cold War" arranged both parties: the USSR consolidated its domination in Eastern Europe, and the United States approved its leadership in Western Europe, putting money into it to restore.

1946 - 1953 Relations between the USSR and the United States have gained tensions in the spring and summer of 1947 during the start of the implementation of the Marshall Plan. Under pressure from the USSR, Eastern European countries refused to participate in this regard. In 1948-1949 Berlin crisis broke out caused by the reluctance of both parties to agree on the German issue. Ultimately, it led to the creation of two German states, and then to the design of NATO military-political units (1949) and ATS (1955). In parallel, the formation of regimes of folk democracy was in the Eastern European countries.

1953 - 1962 During this period of the Cold War, the world was on the verge of nuclear conflict. Despite the improvement of relations between the USSR and the United States in the mid-50s, it was at this stage that an anti-communist uprising occurred in Hungary (1956), excitement in the GDR (1953) and in Poland (1956), as well as Suez crisis (1956 ). This period of relations between the superpowers of the Berlin and Caribbean crises of 1961 and 1962, respectively, was completed.

1962 - 1979 The period was marked by the arms race undermining the economy of rival countries. Despite the presence of tensions in relations between the USSR and the United States, agreements on the restriction of strategic arms are signed. The joint Space Program "Soyuz-Apollo" is being developed. However, by the beginning of the 80s, the USSR begins to lose in the arms race.

1979 - 1987 Relations between the USSR and the United States reiterate after entering the Soviet troops to Afghanistan. The United States is placed in 1983. Ballistic rockets at bases in Italy, Denmark, England, Germany, Belgium. The development of a system of anti-symbolic defense is underway.

1987 - 1991 The parish in 1985 to power in the USSR M. Gorbachev led not only to global changes within the country, but also radical changes in foreign policy, called "new political thinking." Between the USSR and the United States lies a number of disarmament agreements. The collapse of the USSR in 1991 meant the end of the "Cold War".

After World War II, the alignment of forces in the international arena changed dramatically. The world became bipolar: two superpowers of the United States and the USSR began to play the leading role in it. For years of war in the United States, a military-industrial complex was rapidly developed, which allowed Americans to have one of the strongest armies in the world. The United States came out of the war of the richest country - here it focused on the overwhelming part of the world industrial production and gold reserves of Western countries. At the same time, European countries were weakened by the war and the colonial system that began the collapse, and Germany and Japan after military defeat dropped out of the world leaders.

The USSR had a huge impact as a country that has played a decisive role in the defeat of the fascism and liberation of Eastern Europe. In addition, the USSR relied on a huge economic and military potential.

a) the creation of the UN.

The Potsdam Conference laid the foundations of the post-war device of the world, its decisions could provide stability and cooperation in Europe for many years.

One of the most important elements of the post-war world order was the creation of the United Nations. The beginning of its creation was putting the conference 50 of the states in San Francisco in April 1945. The UN Charter was adopted on June 26, 1945. Officially, the organization has existed from October 24, 1945 - the UN Charter was ratified by the United Kingdom, China, USSR, USA, France (permanent members of the Security Council) and most of the other signatories. The main objectives of the UN were the maintenance of international peace and security through comprehensive cooperation between nations.

UN Governing Bodies - Annual General Assembly (General Meeting of All Members) and Security Council. Decisions are made by a majority vote on the basis of equality of all members. But at the same time, the principle of the unanimity of the great powers is observed (they are permanent members of the Security Council): no solution can be accepted if at least one of them votes against.

The cooperation of UN members is carried out through the system of numerous advice, committees and other bodies. The UN has the right to introduce economic sanctions and apply force against individual states (by decision of the Security Council).

b) the beginning of the "Cold War"

The Potsdam system of international relations opened ample opportunities for state cooperation with various socio-economic buildings. But in practice, the desire for hegemony won. Fraising the growth of the influence of socialism, the former partners of the USSR on the anti-Hitler coalition went to the aggravation of relations with their former ally. It marked the beginning of the "Cold War", the leading role in which the United States was playing.

"Cold War" is the confrontation of two world systems using all methods, in addition to direct hostilities between superpowers. The main directions of this confrontation were:

1) arms race, creating military blocks, unleashing local conflicts;

2) economic blockade, struggle for the economic section of the world on the spheres of influence;

3) Psychological War, aggravation of ideological confrontation.

The beginning of the "Cold War" is associated with the speech of U. Cherchille at the Military Academy of Futton (USA) in March 1946, where he called on to "put the Iron Curtain Communism." The most bright "Cold War" in the first postwar years manifested itself in the following.

The economic blockade of the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe, refused to adopt the American "Marshall Plan", according to which the United States provided financial assistance to countries affected by World War II, but controlled its spending;

The split of Germany (in violation of Potsdam agreements) and the formation of Germany, GDR and West Berlin;

Creating a NATO military-political bloc (1949), united US, Canada and a number of Western European countries, which created a direct military threat to the USSR and Eastern Europe;

Race of nuclear and conventional weapons;

The war in Korea (1950-1953), which was attended by one side of the United States (on the basis of the decision of the UN Security Council, adopted in the absence of the Soviet delegation), and on the other - the USSR and the PRC.

c) the formation of the global system of socialism

After World War II in a number of Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia, Communists came to power. As a result, in the period 1944-1949. There was a global system of socialism, the leading role in which the USSR played.

The USSR provided comprehensive assistance to these states. He immediately established diplomatic relations with new governments, thereby thoring the possibility of their international isolation and political blockade. The USSR defended their interests in the UN, using its advantage of a permanent member of the Security Council.

The USSR concluded contracts for friendship and mutual assistance with the socialist countries. These treaties became the basis for the deployment of further cooperation between the socialist countries.

In the first postwar years, the USSR had significant economic assistance to these states, having transferred part of the trophy equipment, selling them raw materials and food at discounted prices, providing loans by sending their specialists. In 1952, the USSR handed its rights to the People's Republic of China. Trade agreements of the USSR with socialist countries were based on the greatest favored regime. The logical conclusion of this process was the creation of the Council of Economic Communications in 1949, which included Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Albania (emerged in 1961), GDR (since 1950).

To coordinate the actions of the Communist Parties was established in 1947. Information Office (Cominform). But in 1949 there was a conflict between the leaders of the USSR and Yugoslavia. Yugoslav leadership defended his way of building socialism, Stalin believed that only the Soviet version is possible. As a result of the Yugoslav Communists, they were excluded from the Cominform. This conflict split the world communist movement.

Question 01. How has the placement of forces changed in the international arena after World War II?

Answer. Before World War II, the mainstream was the confrontation of the fascist and western blocks. The USSR, who did not have its own block (except for Mongolia) was a third force. According to the results of the war, fascism has ceased to participate in the global confrontation, and the USSR acquired his block and became the main force that fought with the West (at the head of which the United States also got up) for world domination.

Question 02. Determine the meaning of the term "Cold War". What reasons was it caused? What do you think, why are the historians of modernity finding themselves with their unequivocal definition?

Answer. The term "Cold War" means military hostility of states, but without battlements directly between the armies of these states. The "Cold War" between the United States and the USSR has many reasons, researchers doubt which of them recognize defining. I will venture to assume that the main is the following:

1) a pre-war rivalry of three ideological systems after the war turned into rivalry of two, but so different that the world was difficult between them, even if someone wanted it;

2) Personal hostility to the opposite ideology of political leaders - the "Cold War" began with Fulton Speech W. Churchill (hated Bolsheviks since their coming to power in Russia) and extremely sharp reaction to N. I.V. Stalin (despite the fact that W. Churchill had no post in the Great Britain);

3) The desire of subsequent leaders to continue the "Cold War" - to M.S. Gorbachev from the leaders of both superpowers only G.M. Malenkov expressed her termination, but this party figure lost the struggle for power;

4) The war was "cold" due to the presence of nuclear weapons who made fighting directly between the troops superpowed too destructive as for the defeated, so for the winner.

Question 04. What are local conflicts? Why were they dangerous for international security? Justify your answer.

Answer. Local call conflict with a minor number of direct participants and the territory of hostilities. During the "Cold War", over the back of the opposing parties almost always stood superpowers. The greatest danger was the exacerbation of relations between superpasses, as well as the participation of their military specialists in hostilities (the death of the latter could provoke interventions into the conflict of the superpower itself, which brought the threat of the global war. The second danger was then not realized, but became relevant now: a significant part of extremists, especially Islamic fundamentalists today, are personnel prepared during local conflicts of one of the superpower (the most famous example - Usama Ben Laden).

Question 05. Why did the Caribbean crisis ended with the Nuclear War between the USSR and the United States? What lessons for themselves removed the governments of two superpowers?

Answer. Both superpowers understood that the direct military clash between them could be the end for both of them, as well as for modern human civilization as a whole (not in gift A. Einstein said: "I don't know what will fight in the third world, but in the fourth will fight sticks in the fourth and stones "). It was after the Caribbean crisis that even thoughts about the nuclear war became clearly understood.