Conquesting Mongols. Tatar-Mongol invasion on Russia

It is unlikely that there is a person who does not know that without a small three centuries, Russia was under the Golden Horde I need. But, apparently, not everyone knows that by 1236 - the year of the invasion of Russia, and later to Eastern Europe - Mongols have already conquered China and most of Asia, representing well-trained and uniquely organized military power with the colossal experience of victorious battles.

With this material, we open a cycle dedicated to the great conquests of the Mongolian Empire, steeply changed the fate of many peoples of medieval Asia and Europe. After all, Mongols won and devastated all the regions of the globe, including part of Western Europe. And their victories were largely obliged to military and political genius of the illiterate breeding leader, which became one of the greatest commander of the world.

Khan Khanov

From the birth of his named Techacign. But in history, this man entered the name of Genghis Khan, which he assigned himself only in 51 years old. Until us did not reach his genuine image, nor what he was height and addition. We are not known, he shouted the orders, who changed the lives of whole peoples, or muttered, forcing thousands of troops lined in front of him ... But something about his life we \u200b\u200bstill know.

Techucin was born in 1155 on the shores of the Oneon River. His father of Yeszugai-Bagatur was a rich Neuon from the genus Borghigin tribe of Taizhiutov. In the campaign against the Mongolian "Tatars", the Tatar Khan Techurica killed his hand. And returning home, I learned that my wife gave birth to him. Inspecting the baby, Yeszugay discovered on his palm of blood clots and decided to call him the name of the killed enemy - Techologist. Superval Mongols adopted this as a sign that foreshadowed a mighty and cruel ruler.

When Jeszugai Bagatur died, Techovka was only 12. After some time, the Ounus created by the Father in the valley of the Ounus river was collapsed. But since that time began the ascent of Tehurin to the heights of power. He scored a gang of Udaltsov and took up the discrepancy and raids on the adjacent tribes. These raids were so successful that by the 50 years he was already able to subjugate the huge territories - all Eastern and Western Mongolia. 1206 became a turning point for Techuchoy, when he was elected on Great Kurultai, Khan Khanov - the master of all Mongolia. Then he got a terrible name of Genghis Khan, which means "the lord of strong". The Great Warrior, "Jegganhir" - a man born under the happy stars, the remaining part of life, being by the standards of those times the man of the elder, dedicated one goal - mastering the world.

In the hearts of his descendants, he remained a wise ruler, a brilliant strategist and a great lawmaker. Mongolian warriors - sons and grandchildren of Genghis Khan, who continued to conquer the conquest to the conquest, who lived in the centuries to conquer him. And his collection of laws "YaSi" has long remained the legal basis of the nomadic peoples of Asia, competing with the norms of Buddhism and the Koran.

Neither before, nor after Genghis Khan, the Mongols had such a powerful and such a despotic ruler, able to direct the energy of tireless in battle and the robbery of tribesmen for the conquest of stronger and rich peoples and states.

By the age of 72, he conquered almost all of Asia, but did not have time to achieve the main goal: to reach the West Sea - "Sunset Countries" - and conquer the "cowardine Europe".

Genghis Khan died in a campaign, one of the versions - from the poisoned boom, on the other - from the blow when falling from the horse. The place where Khan Khanov was buried and remained mystery. According to the legend, the last words of the Great Warrior were: "Higher pleasure is to win: defeat their enemies, pursue them, deprive their property, force them to cry, jumping on their horses, hug their daughters and wives."

"Mongols" or "Tatars"

The origin of the Mongols still remains a mystery. They are considered the ancient population of Central Asia, believing that Hunna (or Huns), mentioned by the Chinese for another three centuries BC, were ... Mongols, and rather, their straight and immediate ancestors. For many centuries, the names of the tribes who inhabited the Mongolian elevation were changed, but the ethnic essence of the peoples did not change from this. Even with respect to the very name - "Mongols" in historians there is no complete consent. Some argue that under the name "Mangu" or "Mongugi" these tribes were known to the Chinese from the X century. Others clarify that only by the beginning of the XI century, most of the current Mongolia was occupied by the Mongolian-speaking tribes. But, most likely, before the beginning of the XIII century, such a concept as "Mongols" was not known at all. It is believed that the name "Mongols" was taken after the occurrence of a single Mongolian state during Genghis Khan in 1206-1227. Mongols have not been his writing until the XIII century. Only in the Nimanov environment (the most culturally developed from the Mongolian tribes) in the go were Uygur letters. By the beginning of the XIII century, the majority of the population professed shamanism. As the main deity, they read the "forever blue sky", the land, as well as the spirits of ancestors. Even at the beginning of the XI century, the Kerauitian tribe of the Keraaitis took the Christianity of the Nestorian sense, and Christianity and Buddhism were also common among Nimans. Both of these religions in Mongolia were penetrated through Uigurov.

Persian, Arab, Armenian, Georgian and Russian chronicles until the 60s of the XIII century called all the Mongols "Tatars", the same name could be found in Chinese chronicles, starting from the XII century. By the way, the concept of "Tatars" corresponded to the European - "Varvara". Although the Mongols themselves never called themselves. For one of the tribes that served on the border of Mongolia and China, the name "Tatars" has been fixed historically. They constantly begun with Mongols and probably even poisoned Father Genghis Khan Yeszugai. In turn, Genghis Khan, coming to power, stopped them shortly. But this did not prevent persistent Chinese, still call the Mongols "Tatars". It is from China that this name later also penetrated into Europe.

As for the generally consumed hybrid "Mongol-Tatars", it arose already in the XIX century. Although neither the troops of Genghis Khan nor later - there was no Tatar. Modern Tatars to the people inhabited in the XIII century on the border of Mongolia with China have nothing to do.

Hike to Asia

The word "Horde", which denoted the Mongolian tribe or the army, became synonymous with the inconvenient number of warriors. The Europeans of the XIII - XIV centuries represented themselves the army of the Mongols in the form of huge undisciplined crowds - they simply could not believe that they were broken up much less in numbers, but better organized army. Meanwhile, the Army of Genghis Khan really was small. But his warriors were trained to military art from childhood in the brutal school of the Gobi desert, were implausably racks and enduring.

The Great Mongolian Empire began with the conquest of China. After 20 years, Mongols appeared off the coast of the Volga. Before joining Europe, they conquered Bukhara, Samarkand, reached the Caspian Sea, devastated the territory of modern Punjab and only, guided by some "diplomatic considerations," for a while postponed the invasion of India. Mongolian troops visited Armenia and Azerbaijan, in 1222 they caused a crushing defeat of the large Georgian army, assembled for the fifth crusade. They captured Astrakhan, Crimea, assigned the Genoese Fortress of Sudak.

In addition to Russia, Eastern and Southern Europe, Mongols won Tibet, invaded Japan, Burma and the island of Java. Their troops were not only land: In 1279, in the Cantonese Gulf, the Mongolian ships broke the fleet of the Chinese Empire Song. Five years earlier, 40,000 Mongolian soldiers were invited to Japan on 900 ships, capturing the island of Tsushima, Iki and part of Kyushu. The Japanese army was almost defeated, but contrary to the entire fleet of the attackers was surfed with Typhoon ... But in two years, the story was repeatedly repeated. Having lost 107,000 warriors, the remnants of the army of the Kubila's commander were forced to retreat in the Korean conquered earlier. By the way, it is with the invasion of the Mongols to Japan, the origin of the word "Kamikadze" is connected in Japan - so Japanese historians called "Divine Wind" - Typhoon, which destroyed enemy ships.

Mongols in the XIII century

1190-1206 Association of Mongolia under the rule of Genghis Khan
1206 At Kurultai Techucin was proclaimed by the emperor Mongolia and was named by the new name - Genghis Khan
1211 The beginning of the first Chinese campaign of Genghis Khan. Going to well-fortified Northskai cities-fasteners and finding their inability to be siege, Genghis Khan is discouraged
1212 Conquest the surroundings of Yanjin
1213 Genghis Khan creates a siege tour and conquers the kingdom of Jin to the Chinese wall
1214 Emperor Jin signs a peace treaty with Genghis Khan and gives his daughter for him
1215 Genghis Khan siege, took and plundered Yanjing (Beijing). Emperor Jin recognizes the dominion of the Mongolian conqueror.
1218 For the first time, the laws of the Mongolian Empire ("Great Yassy") were systematized and recorded)
1223 Death of the Mughal who commanded the troops in China
1225 - 1226. Approved the final editorial office of the Code of Law "YaSa"
August 1227. Death of Chingis Khana
1234 - 1279. War of Mongol-Tatars with the Empire Song
1252 - 1253. Capture of Mongol-Tatars under the command of the Manka Yunnan, who belonged to Nanyzho, Vassalov Soon Empire
1253 Brother Manka Khubilai began the Chinese campaign: a strong army grouping under the personal leadership of Kubilan blocked the center of the Sun Empire
1257 - 1259. The campaign against Sun headed Munka. Decisive victories of Mongol-Tatars. From the final defeat of Sun saved a sudden death from the dysentery of the MUNE and the next dynastic disputes in Mongolia followed
1259 - 1268. The revived Song dynasty has a stubborn resistance to Mongol-Tatars
1276 The fall of the capital of Song of Hangzhou. The final seizure of Sun Mongol-Tatars
1279 Khubilai Khan bases the yuan dynasty
1279 - 1368.
1296 "Great Yasi" are published - the laws of the Mongolian Empire

Knowledge of China

Having met on his way the fortified Northskaya cities of the fortress and finding a complete inability to conduct a siege, Genghis Khan initially was discouraged. But gradually he managed to expand military experience and, creating so necessary siege conversations, to conquer the territory of the kingdom Jin to the Chinese Wall ...

Three armies, he moved in the heart of the kingdom of Jin between the Chinese wall and the yellow river. He completely defeated the troops of the enemy, captured many cities. And in the end, in 1215 heeddown, took and plundered Yanjing.

At the beginning of the XIII century, China was divided into two states: North - Jin ("Golden Kingdom") and Sun - Sun. With Power Jin, the Mongolian Khanov had long-standing abacus: Jin's emperor straightened on the Mongols of envious and greedy nomadic neighbors, and, besides, Zinnets captured one of the Mongolian khans - Ambaga and betrayed his painful execution. Mongols hid the thirst for revenge ... The enemy was strong. The Chinese army was much surpassed by the number of the army of the Mongols, their soldiers were perfectly trained, and cities are well fortified.

Genghis Khan understood that a great war must be thoroughly prepared. In order to put the vigilance of the enemy, the Mongols set with Jin's "Trading Communications" with the Empire. Needless to say, most of the Mongolian "merchants" simply were spy.

In the eyes of Mongols, Genghis Khan tried to give the future campaign to the "Golden Kingdom" special character. "Eternally blue sky" will take troops to revenge for the resentment caused by the Mongola, "he said.

In the spring of 1211, the Mongolian army made a campaign. To the Great Wall of China, she had to go through the way about 800 kilometers long. A significant part of this path ran through the eastern territory of the Gobi desert, where in those days it was also possible to find water and feed for horses. As a food, numerous herds of livestock.

Genghis Khan was accompanied by four sons in the campaign: Juchi, Chagay, Ughedi and Tului. Three seniors occupied team posts in the army, and the younger consisted of a father, who immediately superimposed on the center of the army, which consisted of 100,000 best Mongolian warriors.

In addition to outdated combat chariots, the Czyn Army has seriously formed by the military tools: kamnamets, large self-tracks, for tensions of each of which was the power of ten people, as well as the catapults, each of which was operated by 200 people.

The exact time of the appearance of powder weapons is unknown. The Chinese used explosives in the 9th century. Perhaps the first Powder weapon in the world was a Chinese bamboo musket that appeared in 1132. It is known that the Chinese have developed the first combat missiles in wars with Mongols ...

Jintsy used gunpowder for both the device of the Fugas, ignited by means of the drive, and to charge the cast-iron pomegranate, rushed into the enemy with the help of special catapult.

The Mongolian commander had to act away from sources of replenishment of reserves, in an enemy country, against superior forces, which, besides, could quickly make losses.

But the huge advantage of Mongols became their excellent, achieved by exploration awareness of both the enemy army and the country. Moreover, intelligence was not interrupted during hostilities. The main goal was to identify the most convenient area to capture the Great Wall.

Genghis Khan successfully attacked the outer wall on the slack-proof plot, kilometers for 200 west of the shortest path. But the greatest resistance of the Mongolians met, already passing the outdoor wall.

In the first major battle after the transition of the wall of the wall, the talented Mongolian commander Jebe inflicted the Jintsham a heavy defeat, going to the rear. It was then that it turned out that the Mongols are familiar with the terrain hardly better than the enemy. In the meantime, the senior Tsarevichi, who received the task from the Father to master the cities in the north of Shanxi province in the Yellow River's radiation, fulfilled her success.

Thus, for literally several months, breaking the resistance to the enemy army and capturing extensive territories with a dozen fortified cities, the Mongols approached the "middle capital" of Jin-Yanjing state. It was located near the current Beijing and was the largest of Asia cities. Her population is a little inferior in numbers the population of the current Chinese capital, and huge towers and high walls could argue with their power with any of the cities in the world.

Panic, sowned by Mongolian troops in the suburbs of the capital, extremely alarmed emperor. All men who are able to wear weapons were enforced to be taken for military service, and no person under the fear of death was not allowed to leave the city ...

Genghis Khan understood that he could overcome this hardening, using primitive siege guns, he could hardly succeed. Therefore, without risking to storm the city, in the fall of 1211 he took the army back for the Great Wall. Then, providing the most favorable conditions for service, and sometimes resorted to force, Genghis Khan created its own engineering building, and no less effective than in the army of Alexander Macedonian or Julia Caesar. In 1212, Yanjing and a dozen of the strongest cities still continued to hold. Less fortified Mongols fortresses were taken either by open force, or resorted to tricks. Sometimes, for example, they felt fled from under the walls, leaving travels with property. If the cunning succeeded, the Chinese garrison decided on the babble and was subjected to a sudden attack ...

In one of the battles under the walls of Yanjing, Genghis Khan was seriously injured in the leg. His army was forced to remove the blockade of the capital and move again for the Great Wall.

In 1214, Mongols invaded the Jin limits again. But this time they acted according to the new scheme. Approaching fortified cities, they chased local peasants in front of them as a living shield. The discouraged Chinese were not solved on their own, and as a result handed over the city.

Genghis Khan commanded to destroy many captured Northskaya cities so that "Mongolian horses could never stumble on the place where the fortress walls were." But in the same 1214, the Mongolian army had to face a new and much more terrible enemy - by the seaside ulcer, who began mercilessly to mow her ranks. The Chinese did not dare to attack even so exhausted army. Moreover, the emperor suggested Genghis Khan a big redemption and the princess of the imperial house in his wife. He agreed, and the Mongolian army, fairly burdened by indiscrect wealth, reached back to the native edges.

Genghis Khan returned to the capital - Karakorum, leaving the communal in the conquered regions of the commander in the obedient regions, giving him the title of "Go-Wan", which means the "senior", "respectable", "County Sovereign", and guaranteeing to finish the conquest of "Golden The kingdoms "forces left under the start of a small squad ... It took a very little time, and in 1215 Genghis Khan in three armies again moved to the kingdom of Jin. Fully defeating the enemy's land, he was askedid, captured and plundered Yanjing. Then Emperor Jin was forced to recognize the dominion of the Mongolian conqueror.

China in the XIII century

1348 Start uprising in China
1356 - 1368.
1356 - 1366.
1368
1368 - 1644. Ming Dynasty in China
1368 - 1388.
1372
1381
1388
1233
1234
1234 - 1279.
1263
1268 - 1276.
1276

China in the XIV century

1348 Start uprising in China
1356 - 1368. People's uprising in China led by Zhu Yuan-Zhan. Directed against the board of Mongols in China
1356 - 1366. Interdisciple between rebels. Zhu Yuan-Zhang becomes the only leader of the rebels
1368 Togan-Timur flight in the steppe from Beijing. The base of the Ming dynasty in China
1368 - 1644. Ming Dynasty in China
1368 - 1388. War of the Empire Min with Mongols
1372 The sharing of General Su yes on the Mongols. Destruction of Karakorum, Capital Mongols
1381 Falling the last ownership of Mongols in China - Yunnan
1388 Min won over the Mongols in the battle on the Kerulent River
1233 Subudai captured the capital Jin Kaifan. For the first time, the Mongols did not completely destroy the city. The merit of Eloy Chutsai, Kidden, Advisor of Genghis Khan
1234 Sun attempt to divide with Mongols Jin. Ugadei refused the section. Sun attempt to capture the former Jin Province - Henan. The beginning of the war of Mongols with Sun
1234 - 1279. War of Mongols with the Song Empire
1263 Proclamation of Beijing Capital of the Mongol Empire
1268 - 1276. Khan Khubilai personally headed a hike on Sun
1276 The fall of the capital of Song of Hangzhou. Final capture of Sun Mongols
1279 Hubilai Khan Based the Yuan Dynasty
1279 - 1368. Board of dynasty yuan in China
1290 Census of the population in China. It amounted to about 59 million people

Face to the west

The following half a century of Mongols continued wars in China. In the end, they managed to conquer not only the Northern Empire Jin, but also Sun. In 1263, the official capital of the extensive Mongolian state was transferred from Karakorum to Beijing.

By 1279, China's conquest was completed, and he became part of a huge Mongolian Empire. Khubilai-Khan is the first Mongolian ruler of China - founded the ruling dynasty of Yuan. Even in its name, Mongols did not come to emphasize the universal nature of their power: "Yuan" in Chinese means "the source of the universe."

Mongols who have embraced their orders in China, despised and the lifestyle of the Chinese, and their scholarship. They even canceled traditional exams for entering the civil service to which almost only Mongols were now accepted. The Chinese were forbidden to move around at night, arrange meetings, study foreign languages \u200b\u200band military business. As a result, here, then numerous uprisings broke out there, hunger happened. Mongols won, but only temporary. And it is in China that they absorbed many achievements of rich and highly developed civilization, which later applied, conquering other nations. During his domination, the Mongolas never managed to destroy the Chinese state, although the Prombright Dynasty of the Yuan Rules in China just over 150 years. The Chinese not only managed to free themselves from the Mongolian oppression, but also destroyed the capital of the invaders. The power of the new, truly Chinese Ming dynasty as on land and the sea has become indisputable. Even the distant Ceylon began to pay tribute to China. Mongols have never been able to regain their own influence in the East.

Now their main interests focused in the West, and names - but - on Europe ...

If you remove the whole lies from the story, it does not mean at all that the truth will remain alone - as a result, it can not stay anything at all.

Stanislav Hezhi Lts.

Tatar-Mongol invasion began in 1237 with the invasion of Batya's cavalry in Ryazan lands, and ended in 1242. The result of these events was two-day yoke. This is said in textbooks, but in fact the relationship between the Horde and Russia were much more complicated. In particular, this is what the famous historian Gumilev says. In this material, we will briefly consider issues of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops from the point of view of the generally accepted interpretation, as well as consider the controversial issues of this interpretation. Our task is not to prompt a fantasy on the subject of medieval society, but to provide our readers the facts. And the conclusions are the case of everyone.

Beginning of invasion and prerequisites

For the first time, Russia and Horde troops came together on May 31, 1223 in the battle on Kalka. Russian troops led Kiev Prince Mstislav, and opposed the subcentages and Juba. Russian army was not just defeated, it was actually destroyed. There are many reasons for this, but they are all considered in the article about the battle on Kalka. Returning to the first invasion, it happened in two stages:

• 1237-1238 - a campaign to the eastern and northern lands of Russia.
• 1239-1242 - a trip to the southern lands, which led to the establishment of yoke.

The invasion of 1237-1238

In 1236, Mongols began another trip against Polovtsy. In this campaign, they achieved great success and in the second half of 1237 approached the boundaries of the Ryazan principality. He commanded the Asian Connection Khan Bati (Batu-Khan), grandson of Genghis Khan. It was 150 thousand people in his submission. With him, hiking participated in the subcent, who was familiar with Rusychi in previous clashes.

Map of Tatar Mongol invasion

The invasion occurred at the beginning of the winter of 1237. It is impossible to establish an accurate date here as it is unknown. Moreover, some historians suggest that the invasion occurred not in winter, and in the late autumn of the same year. With a huge speed, the connion of Mongols moved around the country, conquering one city by one:

• Ryazan - fell at the end of December 1237. Siege lasted 6 days.
• Moscow - Pala in January 1238. Siege lasted 4 days. This event was preceded by a battle under Kolomna, where Yuri Vsevolodovich tried to stop the enemy with his army, but was defeated.
• Vladimir - fell in February 1238. Siege lasted 8 days.

After taking Vladimir, in fact, all the eastern and northern lands were in the hands of Batya. He conquered one city after another (Tver, Yuriev, Suzdal, Pereslavl, Dmitrov). In early March, Palkok, opening the path of the Mongolian army to the north, to Novgorod. But Batie made another maneuver and instead of a campaign to Novgorod, he turned his troops and went to storm Kozelsk. 7 weeks came the siege, ended only when the Mongols went to the trick. They announced that they would accept the surrender of the garrison of Kozelsk and let everyone go. People believed and opened the gate of the fortress. The battered words did not restrain and gave the order to kill everyone. So the first campaign was completed and the first invasion of the Tatar-Mongolian troops on Russia.

The invasion of 1239-1242 years

After a break for a year and a half, in 1239 a new invasion began on Russia's Russia Khan Batiya. This year, based events occurred in Pereyaslav and Chernigov. The lethargy of the onset of Batya is connected with the fact that at that time he led an active struggle with Polovtsy, in particular in the territory of Crimea.

In the fall of 1240, Bati led his army under the walls of Kiev. The ancient capital of Russia could not resist for a long time. The city fell December 6, 1240. Historians celebrate special atrocities with which the invaders behaved. Kiev was almost completely destroyed. Nothing left from the city.

Mongolian conquest (13th century)

That Kiev, which we know today, has nothing to do with the ancient capital (except for the geographical position). After these events, the invaders army divided:

• Part went to Vladimir-Volynsky.
• Part went to Galich.

Capturing these cities, Mongols switched to the European Hike, but he interests us little.

The consequences of the Tatar-Mongolian invasion on Russia

The consequences of the invasion of the Asian troops on Russia historians are definitely described:

• The country was crooked, and became completely dependent on the Golden Horde.
• Rus began to pay tribute to the winners annually (money and people).
• The country fell into a stupor in terms of progress and development due to the unbearable yoke.

This list can be continued, but, in general, everything comes down to the fact that all the problems that were in Russia at that time have written off on the yoke.

This is the case, if briefly, the Tatar-Mongol invasion from the point of view of official history and what we speak in the textbooks. In contrast, we will look at the arguments of Gumilev, as well as ask a number of simple, but very important issues to understand the current issues and the fact that with the IGOM, as with the relations of Russia-Horde, everything is much added than to say.

For example, it is absolutely incomprehensible and inexplicable, as a nomadic people who lived a two-year-old time ago, created a huge empire and conquered half of the world. After all, considering the invasion of Russia, we only consider the vertex of iceberg. The Golden Horde Empire was much more: from the Pacific Ocean to Adriatic, from Vladimir to Burma. Giant countries were conquered: Rus, China, India ... None after no one could create a military machine that could conquer so many countries. And the Mongols were able ...

To understand how hard it was (if not to say that it is impracticable) let's consider the situation with China (so that they do not blame that we are looking for a conspiracy around Russia). The population of China at the time of Genghis Khan was about 50 million people. Nobody led the Mongol census, but, for example, today this nation has 2 million people. If we consider that the number of all the peoples of the Middle Ages increases by now, then the Mongols were less than 2 million people (with women, old men and children). How could they conquer China in 50 million inhabitants? And then also India and Rus ...

Strange the geography of the movement of Batya

Let's go back to the invasion of Mongol-Tatars on Russia. What were the goals of this campaign? Historians talk about the desire to plunder the country and subordinate it to themselves. It also says that all these goals have been achieved. But this is not quite so, because in ancient Russia there were 3 richest cities:

• Kiev is one of the largest cities in Europe and the ancient capital of Russia. The city was conquered by Mongols and destroyed.
• Novgorod is the largest shopping city and the richest in the country (hence and its special status). At all, not suffered from invasion.
• Smolensk is also the city of the trade, was considered to be rich in Kiev. The city also did not see the Mongol-Tatar troops.

So it turns out that 2 of the 3 largest cities did not suffer at all from the invasion. Moreover, if we consider looting, as a key aspect of the invasion of Batya on Russia, the logic is not traced at all. Judge for yourself, Bate takes Torzhok (2 weeks spends on the assault). This is the poorest city whose task is to guard Novgorod. But after that, the Mongols do not go to the north, which would be logical, but unfolded south. Why was there for 2 weeks to spend not the necessary Torzhok on anyone to just turn south? Historians give two explanations logical at first glance:

• Under Torzhoy Batu lost a lot of warriors and was afraid to go to Novgorod. This explanation could be considered logical if it were not for one "but". Kohl soon lost a lot of his army, he needs to leave Russia to replenish the troops or take a breather. But instead, Khan rushes at the assault of Kozelsk. Here, by the way, the losses were huge and as a result of the Mongol, rushing rushing. But why they did not go to Novgorod - it is incomprehensible.
• Tatar-Mongols were frightened by the spring spill of the rivers (it was in March). Even in modern conditions, March in the north of Russia does not differ in the softness of the climate and they can safely move. And if we talk about 1238, then the era of climatologists is called a small glacial period, when winter was much severe modern and overall temperatures are much lower (it is easy to check). That is, it turns out that in the era of global warming in March to Novgorod can be reached, and in the era of the ice age, everyone was afraid of the spill of rivers.

With Smolensky, the situation is also paradoxical and not explaining. Taking Torzhok, Batya goes to storm Kozelsk. This is a simple fortress, a small and very poor city. Mongols stormed 7 weeks, lost thousands of people killed. What was this done for? There was no benefit from taking Kozelsk - there is no money in the city, there are no food warehouses either. Why are such victims? But only 24 hours of movement of the cavalry from Kozelsk is Smolensk - the richest city in Russia, but the Mongols do not even think to move towards him.

Surprisingly, all these logical questions are simply ignored by official historians. Standard excuses are given, they say, who knows these savages, so they decided themselves. But such an explanation does not withstand any criticism.

Nomads in winter do not spend never

There is another remarkable fact that the official story simply spares, because It is impossible to explain it. Both Tatar-Mongolian invasions were committed on Russia in winter (or started late in autumn). But these are nomads, and nomads begin to fight only in spring to finish battles until winter. After all, they move on horseback to feed. You can imagine how you can feed the many thousands of Mongolian army in the snowy Russia? Historians, of course, say it is a trifle and should not even consider such questions, but the success of any operation directly depends on the provision:

• Karl 12 could not establish the provision of his army - lost Poltava and the Northern War.
• Napoleon could not establish provision and left Russia with a half-starving army, which was absolutely unable.
• Hitler, according to many historians, managed to establish the provision only by 60-70% - lost the second world war.

And now, understanding all this, let's see what was the army of the Mongols. It is noteworthy, but there is no certain number of quantitative composition. Historians call numbers from 50 thousand to 400 thousand riders. For example, Karamzin speaks about 300 thousandth bats. Let's consider providing the army on the example of this figure. As famous Mongols have always been sent to the Military Hiking with three horses: the rider was moved (the rider moved), the worker (transported personal belongings and weapons of the rider) and the fighting (walked empty, so that at any moment could become fresh in battle). That is, 300 thousand people are 900 thousand horses. Add horses to this, which were transported to the guns (more specifically known, then the guns of Mongols were brought to collected), horses that were taken for the army, an additional weapon was taken, etc. It turns out, according to the most modest estimates, 1.1 million horses! And now imagine how snow-covered in winter (in the era of a small glacial period) to feed such a flock in someone else's country? There is no answer, since this is impossible.

So how many was the army at the Bat?

It is noteworthy, but the closer to our time the invasion of the Tatar-Mongolian troops occurs, the less the number is obtained. For example, the historian Vladimir Chilivihin speaks about 30 thousand who moved scattered, because in the unified army they were not formed. Part of the historians lowers this figure even below - to 15 thousand. And here we encounter an insoluble contradiction:

• If Mongols really were so much (200-400 thousand), how could they feed themselves and their horses in the harsh Russian winter? The cities did not give up the world to make a provisionant from them, most of the fortresses were burned.
• If the Mongols were really only 30-50 thousand, then how did they manage to conquer Russia? After all, the army in the area of \u200b\u200b50 thousand against Batya was exhibited every princess. Be Mongols really so little and act on their own - under Vladimir would have buried the remains of the Horde and Batya himself. But in fact everything was different.

Conclusions and answers to these questions We offer the reader to search for yourself. For our part, we did the main thing - indicated the facts that completely refute the official version of the invasion of Mongol-Tatars. At the end of the article, I want to note another important fact that the whole world recognized, including the official story, but this fact is silent and a little is published. The main document for which many years has been studied the yoke and invasion - the Lavrentievsky chronicle. But, as it turned out, the truth of this document causes big questions. Official story acknowledged that 3 pages of the chronicle (which refers to the beginning of the yoke and the beginning of the invasion of the Mongols on Russia) changed and are not original. I wonder how many other pages from the history of Russia changed in other annals, and what happened in fact? But it is almost impossible to answer this question ...

Mongolian conquest at 13

Mongolian conquests in the 13th century, a series of large conquering wars and individual trips organized by Mongolian feudalities in order to capture military production, enslavement and robbery of the peoples of Asia and Eastern. Europe. Mongolian feudalists, creating a military organization, most people involved in conquering wars. The main force of their troops was a numerous and very mobile cavalry, consisting of nomads-Arata. Mongolian feudals also used military forces of conquered countries and their technical achievements (for example, siege tools) in the campaigns. The army had a single command, a strong discipline, was well armed and the feudal militia of neighboring countries exceeded its combat qualities. Successes M. s. The internal distribution and betrayal of the ruling top in many countries of Asia and Eastern Europe contributed.

M. s. Began after the formation of the Mongolian early referral state, headed by Genghis Khan (rules in 1206-27) and continued with small interruptions until the end of the 13th century. In 1207-11, the peoples of Siberia and East Turkestan were subordinated: Buryats, Yakuts, Weiros, Kyrgyz, Uigur; Hiking was taken against the TANGUT state of CIA (finally crushed to 1227). In 1211, an offensive began on the Chjugzhen state of Jin (North China). Mongolian detachments destroyed about 90 cities and Peking (Yanjing) took 1215. To 1217, all the land were conquered for S. from r. Huanghe. In 1218 the power of Mong. Feudalov spread on seven.

In 1219 Mong. The army of more than 150 thousand people. Head with Genghis Khan invaded Central Asia. Khorezmshah Muhammed dispersed the army along fortified cities than the conquest of his possessions alleviated the Mongols. Mongolian detachments took refill, Khodeven, Urgench and other cities. Bukhara and Samarkand surrendered without a fight. Muhammed fled and soon died on one of the islands of the Caspian Sea. In 1221, the capture of Khorezma, the conquest of Central Asia was completed. Military actions were transferred to the territory of modern Afghanistan, where the son of Khorezmshaha - Jelal Ad-Dean continued to fight. Genghis Khan pursued him to r. Ind and defeated November 24, 1221. By 1225, the main Mongolian army went to Mongolia. Only a 30-thousand squad of the Mongolian commander Jebe and Subemethy continued the war in the West.

Through the Northern Iran, the Mongolian detachment broke into the Transcaucasia, devastated the part of Georgia and Azerbaijan, in the banks of the Caspian Sea penetrated the land of Alanov (1222) and, defeating them, went to the Polovetsky steppes. In battle on r. Klock May 31, 1223 Mongolian detachment defeated the United Russian-Polovetskaya army, pursued him to r. Dnipro, and then retreated to the middle Volga, but, victims defeated in Bulgaria Volzhsko-Kama, returned to Mongolia (1224). It was a deep reconnaissance raid of Mongolian cavalry, prepared the future going to the West.

After Kurultaya 1229, who chosen the Great Han Meggi, M. Z.

went in two directions. On V., the conquest of Northern China (1231-34) was completed and the war with Korea (1231-32) was launched. Most of Korea was conquered by 1273 after a series of large hikes of Mongolian troops (1236, 1254, 1255, 1259). In 1229 to r. YiIK approached Subemes with a 30-thousandth army. Together with the troop of Batya, the ruler of Ulus Juchi, he managed to displace Saksinov and Polovtsi from the Caspian steppes. In 1232, the Mongolian army tried to invade Volzhsko-Kama Bulgaria, but was chosen. Continued to fight conquerors and Bashkirs. The offensive to the west forces of one ulus Juchi failed.

On Kurultai, 1235 was decided to send "to help and reinforce Batu" the military forces of other uluses. 14 khanov-chingisids participated in the campaign, the Promotiongol army reached 150 thousand people. In the fall, 1236, the Mongolian army again invaded the Volga-Kama Bulgaria and defeated it, in the spring and summer 1237, it continued to fight with Alans, Polovtsy and the peoples of the Middle Volga region, and in the fall in the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Voronezh for a trip to the Northeast Rus. At the beginning of the winter, 1237 Baty attacked the Ryazan Principality and broke the squad of local princes. December 21 after the six-day assault Pala Ryazan. The heroism of the defenders of the Ryazan land is glorified into a ledge of Evpato Kolovrat. In January 1238, Vladimir squads were broken under Kolomna, who were trying to delay Batiya at the boundaries of the Vladimir Principality. Mongolian army destroyed Kolomna, Moscow and February 4, Vladimir besied. Grand Duke Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich "With a small friend" gone for the Volga, on the river. Sit (the flow of molot), where he began to collect a new army. On February 5, the Mongolian detachment ruined Suzdal, and on February 7, Vladimir was taken after the fierce assault. After that, Baty divided the army into several large detachments, which went on the main river paths on S.-V., S. and S.-Z. And in February 1238 14 Russian cities (Rostov, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Kashin, Kushnik, Gorich, Galich Merky, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yuryev, Dmitrov, Wolf-Lamb, Tver, Torzhok). On March 4, the army of the Mongolian commander of Burundae was surrounded and destroyed the grand permanent shelves on the river. City; Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich died in this battle. All Oki and Volga intercourse were devastated by Mongols. A small detachment of Mongolian cavalry made a raid on C. and returned, without reaching 100 km to Novgorod. During the retreat in the steppe, the Mongolian army wore a wide front of small detachments, "the region", once again undergoing Russian lands by emptying. Stubborn resistance was rendered by the enemy Kozelsk, which the Mongolian army deposited 7 weeks, which lazed large losses.

In Polovtsy steppes (summer 1238 - autumn 1240), the Mongolian army led the protracted war with Polovtsy and Alans, made hiking in the Crimea, to the Mordovian land, where the uprising was raised against the conquerors, to Pereyaslavl-South and Chernigov (1239). In the fall of 1240, a trip to South Rus began. At the end of December, after a multi-day assault, Kiev. Mongolian detachments took and destroyed Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich and other cities. However, Danilov, Kremenets and the Hill abound all attacks of the Mongolian troops. In the spring of 1241, the Mongolian army, although significantly weakened by the heroic resistance of the Russian people and other nations of Eastern Europe, still passed on Z.

The main forces of Batya through Carpathian passes broke through in Hungary, the 60-thousand army of the King of Bella IV suffered a defeat in the battle at Chaio (April 11, 1241). The capital of Hungary - the city of Pest was taken and destroyed, a significant part of the country was devastated. Another Mongolian detachment invaded Poland, broke under the league the militia of Polish and German princes. Polish, Moravian and Slovak lands underwent ruins. Separate Mongolian detachments penetrated to the Eastern Czech Republic, but were repulsed by King Welaw I. At the end of 1241, all Mongolian troops focused on Hungary, where the masses continued to fight conquerors. He failed to consolidate in the Hungarian steppes for further attack on Z. Batyu, and he moved through Austria and Croatia to the Adriatic Sea. In the fall of 1242 after the unsuccessful siege of the coastal fortresses, Bati through Bosnia, Serbia and Bulgaria began a retreat. The invasion of the Mongols to Central Europe is over.

Some more prolonged were M. s. For Z. - in Malaya Asia and the Middle East. After the conquest of Transcaucasia (1236), the Mongolian army crushed the Rumsky Sultanate. In 1256 Hulagu won Iran and Twire, in 1258 Pal Baghdad - the capital of the Arab Caliphate. Mongolian troops penetrated Syria, they were preparing for the invasion of Egypt, but in 1260 suffered from the Egyptian Sultan. M. s. On Z. ended.

In the 2nd half of the 13th century. M. s. Were directed to the countries of Eastern and Southeast Asia. Mongolian troops seized the countries surrounding the South Sun Empire: the state was given (1252-53), Tibet (1253). In 1258, the Mongolian troops from different sides were invaded in South China, but the unexpected death of the Great Khan Munke (1259) derete the conquest of the South Soon Empire. South China was conquered by the new Grand Khan Hubilam in 1267-79. In 1281, Mongolian feudal tried to conquer Japan, sending 1000 ships with a 100 thousandth army to her shores, but the fleet was destroyed by Typhoon. Did not bring the success of the Mongolians and expansion in Southeast Asia, although they used in the campaigns by the Chinese army and the fleet. Mongol-Chinese troops after several trips (1277 - twice, 1282, 1287) occupied Burma, but they were soon expelled (1291). Mongol-Chinese troops and fleet have repeatedly attacked Vietnam (1257, 1258, 1284, 1285, 1287-88), but could not conquer the Vietnamese people. Defended its independence and the state of Thyampa (on Yu.-v. Indochina). Full failure ended and an attempt to conquer about. Java, although large forces were directed there (1000 ships with a 70,000-thousand army).

M. s. Ended the campaign of 1300 in Burma. After that, the Mongolian feudals stopped active hostilities and moved to the systematic operation of conquered countries, using Chinese management experience and the Chinese administration.

M. s. Brought disasters to the peoples of Asia and Eastern Europe. They were accompanied by the mass destruction of the population, the devastation of huge territories, the destruction of cities, the decline of agricultural culture, especially in the areas of irrigated agriculture. M. s. The socio-economic and cultural development of countries entered into the Mongolian feudal empire was detained for a long time.

Lit.: Tatar-Mongols in Asia and Europe. Sat Art., M., 1970; Bartold V.V., Turkestan in the era of the Mongolian invasion, cit., Vol. 1, M., 1963; Kargalov V. V., Foreign Policy factors for the development of feudal Russia. Feudal rus and nomads, M., 1967; Greeks B. D., Yakubovsky A. Yu., Golden Horde and its fall, M. - L., 1950; Merpert N. Ya., Pashutu V. T., Cherepnin L. V., Genghis Khan and his heritage, "History of the USSR", 1962, No. 5.

V. V. Kargalov.

Conquest of the Mongols in the 13th century

The Mongolian detachments, combined by Genghis Khan, conquered the neighboring peoples - Yenisei Kyrgyz, Buryat, Yakuts and Uigurov, defeated the civilization of Primorye, and by 1215 they won North China.

Mongolian conquests in the 13th century

Here, the Mongolian commander to-armed with Chinese engineers a siege technique for storming fortresses. In 1218, Genghis Khan commander conquered Korea, and the next year the 200 thousandth army fell on the city of Khorezm. For two years of combat operations, the agricultural areas of the seminary were turned into pastures, most residents were destroyed, and artisans were taken into slavery. In 1221, Genghis Khan subjugated the whole of Central Asia. After that, the campaign of Genghis Khan stripped his huge power on the uluses.

Spring 1223g. 30 - a thousand-thousand Mongols detachment under the leadership of the Jebe and the subnedace, having passed along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, invaded the Transcaucasus. After breaking the Armenian-Georgian army and empty Georgia and Azerbaijan, the invaders broke through the Derbent passage to the North Caucasus and broke the Alan and Polovtsy.

Mongol-Tatars were able to conquer states standing at the highest level of development, as:

1) Excellent Organization of Troops (decimal system)

2) Borrowing of military equipment from the Chinese

3) numerous troops

4) Good Organized Intelligence

5) The rigidity in relation to the resisting cities (recalculated cities they destroyed, burned, destroyed, and the inhabitants either were captured (artisans, women, children), or exterminated). Consequently, the cities surrendered voluntarily.

6) Psychological factors (use of sound elements).

Battle on Kallet (1223)

Polovtsy, led by Khan Kityan, the age-old enemies of Russia, turned to Russian princes for help against Mongol-Tatars. At the initiative of Mstislav Mstislavich removed (Galitsky Prince, was married to the daughter of Khan Kotyan) at the congress of South Russian princes in Kiev, it was decided to come to the rescue Polovtsy. The steppe entered a major Russian army led by three strongest princes of South Rus: Mstislav Romanovich Kiev, Mstislav Svyatoslavich Chernigov and Mstislav Mstislavovich Galitsky. In the lower reaches of the Dnieper it has connected with the Polovtsy forces. On May 31, 1223, near the Azov Sea, a battle occurred on the river Kalka, in which the Russian-Polovetskaya army as a result of inconsistent effects and intra-jet deprises suffered a defeat: while Mstislava deleted, Daniel Volynsky and some other princes, with the support of the Polovtsian Connection, rushed On the enemy, Mstislav Kievsky stood with his own on one of the hills and did not participate in the battle. Mongols managed to withstand the blow, and then switched to the offensive. The first were defeated by the Polovtsy, running from the battlefield. It put Galician and Volyn Rati in a difficult position. Mongols broke the resistance of Rusich.

Now there was a turn of the most powerful part of Russian troops - Kiev Rati. Attempting to take the Russian camp attack, Mongols failed, and then they went to the trick. Jebe and Subede promised Mstislav to Kiev and other princes peace and passing their troops to their homeland. When the princes revealed their camp and left him, the Mongols rushed to Russian squads. All Russian warriors were captured.

During the battle, 6 princes died at Kalka, only every tenth returned from the warriors. Only Kiev Raint lost about 10 thousand people. This defeat turned out to be one of the hardest in history.

The invasion of Batya on Russia

In 1227, the founder of the Mongolian Empire of Genghis Khan died. The ulus of the Senior Son of Juchi, who died in one year with his father, got the grandchildren of the conqueror - Batu-Khan (Batu). It is this ulus, located to the west of r. Irtysh, should have become a major bridgehead for a conquering campaign to the West.

In 1235, on the next Kurultae Mongolian, nobility in Karakorum made a decision on the ledgeongol campaign to Europe. Forces one ulus juchi was not enough. Therefore, the troops of other chingisides were sent to the rescue of Batu. At the head of the campaign, the battered himself was put, and an experimental commander was appointed an adviser.

The offensive began in the fall of 1236, and after a year, the Mongolian conquerors conquered the Volga Bulgaria, as well as the Polovetsky Horde, who had nagged in the intercourse of Volga and Don.

Late in the fall 1237g. Battle's main forces focused in the upper reaches. Voronezh for the invasion of Northeast Rus. In Russia, they knew about the Terrible Danger, but the princely spreads were prevented to unite the forces to unscrew the strong and cunning enemy. There was no single command. Strengthening cities were built for the defense of neighboring Russian principalities, and not from steppe nomads. Princely horseraded squads for armament and combat qualities were not inferior to Mongolian Neuon and Nuker. But the main mass of Russian troops was a militia - urban and rural warriors, giving mongols in armament and combat skills.

The defeat of Ryazan

The first principality undergoing ruthless ruin was Ryazan land. The sovereign Russian princes had nothing to oppose this invasion. Princely plot did not allow themselves to expose the combined forces of Vladimir and Chernihiv princes to refuse Ryazan to help. Approaching Ryazan Earth, Bati demanded the tenth part from Ryazan princes "from everything that is in your Earth."

In Nadeya, agreed with Batym, Ryazan Prince sent an embassy with rich gifts to him, which was headed by the Princely Son Fedor. Having adopted gifts, Khan put forward the humiliating and arrogance: besides the huge Dani to give the Mongolian wife to know the princely sisters and daughters. And for myself, he looked after the beautiful Euppracinhu, Fyodor's wife. The prince answered with a decisive refusal and together with the ambassadors was devoted to the painful execution. And the princess along with the little son, so as not to get the conquerors, rushed down the bell tower. Ryazan army went against Batya, and "met near Ryazan's limits." The battle was very hard twelve times the Russian squad from the environment, "one Ryazan fought with a thousand, and two - with dirty (ten thousand)" - so writes the chronicle about this battle. But the advantage in the forces from Batya was great, Ryazanians suffered great losses. It is a turn of the fall of Ryazan. Ryazan held five days, for the sixth day, in the morning of December 21 she was taken. The whole city was destroyed, and all residents were exterminated. Mongol-Tatars left only ashes. Ryazan Prince died with her family. The surviving residents of the Ryazan land were collected a squad (about 1,700 people), led by Evpathy Kolovrat. They caught up with the enemy in the Suzdal Earth and began to lead the partisan struggle against him, inflicting large losses against the Mongols.

The defeat of the Vladimir Prince

Razing Ryazan Earth, in January 1238. The Mongolian invaders defeated under the Kolomnaya cereal perjury guard regiment of the Vladimir-Suzdal land led by the son of the Grand Duke Vsevolod Yuryevich.

The enemy's strong resistance for 5 days was provided by the population of Moscow, led by Voevoda Philip Nyanka. After taking Mongols, Moscow was burned, and its inhabitants are interrupted.

Then the Mongols captured Suzdal and a number of other cities.

February 4, 1238 Batya Zaedil Vladimir. The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km) his troops passed in a month. On the fourth day of the siege, the invaders through breaks in the serfs near the gold gate broke into the city. Princely family and remnants of troops closed in the Assumption Cathedral. Mongols laid out the cathedral with trees and set fire. After the capture of Vladimir, the Horde conquer was dissipated throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal Earth, robbery and destroying everything in their path. (14 cities were ruined)

March 4, 1238 Behind the Volga, on r. City, the battle occurred between the main forces of Northeast Russia at the head of the Grand Duke Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich and Mongolian invaders. The Russian army was defeated, and the Grand Duke himself died.

After taking the "suburbs" of the Novgorod Land - the trading of prevails opened the road to the North-Western Rus. However, the approximation of the spring dishthele and significant human losses forced the Mongols, without reaching the great Novgorod about 100 miles, turn back to Polovtsy sepia. On the way, they defeated Kursk and a small town of Kozelsk on r. Sident. Kozelsk defenders had fierce resistance enemy, defending over seven weeks. After taking it in May 1238. Battered ordered to erase from the face of the earth, this "evil city", and the remaining residents will destroy.

Summer 1238g. Battered spent in the Dudonian steppes, restoring the forces of his troops. However, in the autumn of his detachments again devastated Ryazan land, capturing Gorhshotts, Murom and several other cities. In the spring of the next, 1239 of Batiev detachments defeated the Pereyaslav principality, and the Chernigovo-Severk land was ruined.

Invasion to South-Western Rus

In the fall 1240g. Mongolian rati moved to the conquest of Western Europe through South Rus. In September, they crossed themselves through the Dnieper and surrounded Kiev. After a long siege on December 6, 1240. The city fell. South Russian princes could not organize the united defense of their lands. In winter, 1240 - 1241. Mongolian Tumenes captured almost all the cities of South Rus, with the exception of the hill, Kamenets and Danilov.

Batya's hike to Europe

After the defeat of Russia, Mongol hordes moved to Europe. Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Balkan countries were ruined. Mongols came to the borders of the German Empire, reached the Adriatic Sea. However, at the end of 1242, there are a number of failures in the Czech Republic and Hungary. From the distant Karakoruma came to the news of the death of the great Khan Ugepi - the son of Genghis Khan. It was a convenient pretext to stop a hard hike. Baty turned his troops back to the east. A decisive world-historical role in the rescue of the European civilization from the Mongolian Horde played the heroic struggle against the Russian and other peoples of our country, who assumed the first blow of the invaders. In the fierce battles in Russia, the best part of the Mongolian troops died. Mongols have lost offensive power. They could not but reckon with the liberation struggle, which unfolded in the rear of their troops. A. S. Pushkin fairly wrote: "Russia was determined by the Great Purpose: Her Unrefected Plains was absorbed by the Mongol's power and stopped their invasion on the very edge of Europe ... The articulated enlightenment was rescued by ripped by Russia"

Upon returning to 1243g. Battered formed the western ulus - the state of the Golden Horde with the capital of Saray-Batu. The state created by Batym took a huge territory: from the Siberian rivers Irtysh and Obi - in the East to Carpathians and the Danube - in the West and from the Caspian Steppes and the Caucasian Mountains - in the south to the Black East Strip and the Worthy Volga and Kama - in the north.

I want a girl with a golden dish to pass from the Yellow Sea to black, not fearing for a dish or for his honor.

Genghis Han

In the wild steppes Transbaikalia

Today is a crash, tomorrow is a warrior,

And the day after tomorrow, God's Spirit,

Mongol really was worthy

And live, and drink, and eat for two.

N. Zabolotsky,
"Moving Mongol Wagons"

The tribes speaking various dialects of the language subsequently called Mongolian appeared in the steppes of Mongolia and Transbaikalia in about the 7th century. Starting from the X century in Chinese sources to designate these tribes, the word is sometimes used MON-GU-LI. However, until the XIII century. This collective name has not been widespread. Each Mongol considered himself a member of a specific tribe, not a large nation.

The largest and most powerful tribes were tatars, Taichjuts, Kerauteits, Nimanaand Merkites. The Chinese most often dealt with the Tatars, so they called all other mongols black Tatars, and actually Tatars - white Tatars. Following the Chinese, the name "Tatars" began to use all other nations, including Europeans.

Most Mongols lived in the steppe and engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. But were also "Forest tribes"who lived in the northern part of Mongolia and the most vigorous hunting and fisheries. Over time, however, many "forest tribes" also took care of livestock. It was the cattle that was the main wealth and measure of value for Mongols.

Nomads grown horses, as well as large and finely horned cattle. They led an active trading with neighboring tribes, exchanging livestock products for craft products and grain. Intermediaries in this trading were Uigur merchants. Until the invention of his own writing, the Mongola was used by a Uigur letter.

By the XIII century. Most of the Mongols were pagans. They worshiped the "eternal blue sky", the Deity of the Earth and the spirits of ancestors. Each kind had her shaman. However, in the XI century. Keratskaya adopted to know non-historical (One of the varieties of Christianity). Among the Mongols there were also Buddhists and Muslims. In general, the Mongols have always been distinguished by amazing religiousness.

It is interesting: In the Middle Ages, there was a legend in the Middle Ages that somewhere far in the east there is a powerful Christian kingdom of "Presbyter John", created by the fledgest from Byzantium with Nestorian hereticians. The presence among Mongols is Nestorian forced many Europeans to accept them for the subjects of the Presbyter John.

The Messenger of the Pope Carpini's Pope, who visited Mongolia in the middle of the XIII century, so described this people: "Tatars were a small growth, broadcaster, shaved naked, with wide skill persons, they ate different meat and liquid porridge from millet. Favorite drink was koumiss (horse milk). Men from Tatars looked after Cattle, were excellent arrows and riders. The economy lay on women. The Tatar had polygamy, everyone had so much wives as he could contain. They lived in kibits-yurts that were easily understood. "

Mongols are usually naughty. During the parking, the nomads put their yurts in the rings around the greener yurts. Such a camp was called kuren. Over time, childbirth has lost their unity and crashed into many separate ailov (i.e. big families).

At the head of each tribe stood han. Below it was stood neuona(noble leaders of childbirth). Each Neuon (not to mention Khan) was his own detachment of warriors nucker.

Mongol: War of Genghis Khan. Overweight is still friendly cerapers.

It is interesting: "Nuker" means "friend" in Mongolian. Thus, the military servants of the rulers from Mongols were called the same as the Russians ("Druzhina").

Formally pastures belonged to all kinds. But by the XIII century. Their actual owners were Khany and Neuona. They also belonged to most of the livestock. Almost all ordinary Mongols ( harach - Mobile) gradually turned into dependent shepherds aratahWho knowing on the use of part of their livestock. Sometimes Neyon passed several Arathi families to one of his nukeers as a reward for the right service. Such a remuneration was called khubi..

Noble Mongols had slaves in which all prisoners of war were turned. Slaves could be homemade servants or shepherds, however, the slaves who knew any craft were most appreciated. After all, among the Mongols there were almost no skillful artisans.

A big role in the life of Mongols played war. She was held for the sake of robbery and capture slaves. Moreover, initially the war was carried out mainly between various Mongolian tribes: the neighboring peoples were separated by the Mongols not yet on the teeth. But soon the situation has changed.

Association of Mongolia

Let your nickname of Genghis. You became the king of kings. The Most High Lord commanded that your penetration was: Genghis Khan, King Kings, sovereign sovereign.

Shaman Kechchu

In the XI and XII centuries. In the Mongolian steppes there was a wet climate conducive to nomadic cattle breeding. The number of herds and herds grew constantly, and the Mongols have multigolated them after them. However, by the beginning of the XIII century, the climate became more arid. The steppe could no longer feed all its inhabitants.

Sid Meier "S Civilization III. That's it, here he, Tegrachin, father of all Mongols.

A direct consequence of climate change has become bloody distribution between Mongolian tribes. Nimana, ceraims, Tatars and others, not finding sufficient food on their own pastures, walked war on their neighbors. According to one Arab historian, at the beginning of the XIII century. Mongolian khana "most of the time ... with each other fought, begged, intermitted and competed, robbed each other." As a result of internecine wars, the defeated tribes fell dependent on their winners. Soon in Mongolia there were several major tribal unions, or ulusov. Separate uluses were already strong enough to make raids on China and other neighboring peoples. Before the unification of all the Mongols under the rule of one Khan, it remained only one step.

This step was destined to make Temuccina.

Temacign was not Han for birth. His father Esugay-Bagatur.he was a notable taizhtov tribe. He led his pedigree since 254. Ezugia was a good commander. He even managed to put his own ulus. In 1164, when Techotcin was only 9 years old, the disgraced was poisoned by Tatars, and his ulus collapsed. Divided to other Neuons and his once faithful nucers. Khan Taichzhiutov TargulTay He took himself all the cattle. The family of Yeshegea (his two widows and children), all left and deprived of the livelihood, waved for several years in Mongolia. The Temacign himself even stayed in slavery from Targultaya.

It is interesting: Esugay-Bagatur called his son Techotovic in honor of one of the Tatar leaders, whom he killed shortly before the birth of a boy.

Finally, Techomchin smiled good luck. He was his patron Ache, the powerful head of the Ceraaite tribe and the old friend of Esugea. Based on the support of the apart, Tegrachin collected a strong detachment of nukeers and began to create his own ulus.

Having accumulated enough forces, Techovkin, together with the opposite and his brother, the leader of the tribe of Jagiratov Jamugoy defeated Merkitov and their allies Taichzhiutov. Soon Brother Jamugi was killed by Techuchuchi with people when trying to sobat herd. After that, the named brothers raised and became fatal enemies.

In 1197, Techuchin and acted, acting with the support of Chinese troops, fell on the Tatars and caused them a strong defeat. For this "Operation" Tegrachin received title from the Chinese emperor jauthuri, and ache - title van. From now on, accepted began to be magnificent Van Khan.

In 1201, Tatars, Merkita, Taichjuts and some other tribes merged against Techurus. At the head of this coalition, Jamuga got up. The struggle between Temuccin and Jamuga was stretched for several years. There have been a few large battles, the winner of which the Techucin came out. Finally, in 1206, Jamuga was captured by five His Arats and issued Techuccin. Arata hoped to get a rich reward from the winner. But instead of award, Techucin ordered the execution of the Arats with their families in front of the prisoner Jamugi, while saying: "Does it thinks in the living Arats who raised her hand on their natural khan?" After that, according to Legend, Techuchin offered Jamuga to forget the old insults and again become friends. However, Dzhamuga chose to die and asked him to break his back. Such death was considered from the Mongols of noble, since it did not require bloodshed.

The Tatars were repeatedly broken by Techovin, in the end, they were cut around them. Ironically, there are still very long Mongols around the world called exclusively by Tatars. The name of this tribe passed to the Crimean and Volga Tatars, although no real Tatar, most likely, did not get to the Crimea and the Volga region.

Genghis Khan.

Borte, Favorite wife of Genghis Khan.

When Ulus Techuchuchina became equal to the forces of Ulus Van Khan, war broke out between former comrades. The winner of her came the Techovkin. Soon Techuccin managed to break the tribe of Nimanov and kill their leader Danian Khana. Danyan-Khan's successor Kuchluk Together with the part of Nimanov fled to the Karakinese Khanate, located south-west of Lake Balkhash.

Finally, in 1206 took place kurultay (Congress of the Mongolian nobility), proclaiming Techuru, the Great Khan of all Mongols and the name assigned to him Genghis Han. Then the Great Khan began to call kagan. Kagan is the highest title, approximately equivalent to the European Emperor. Genghis-Khan Mongols called only Chinese rulers. Under the rule of Genghis-Khan, all Mongolian tribes turned out to be, which only from this point began to feel and call themselves not by cerapets or nimans, and Mongols.

Attention - myth: In some books, you can meet this or that or another interpretation of the name of Chingis Khan. Somewhere it is translated as "ocean-khan", somewhere - as a "true ruler." In fact, the value of this name is not yet established.

The long-awaited world reigned in the Mongolian steppe. However, before the new Lord Mongols stood an old question: what to do with an excess population, which was not enough space on old pastures? Genghis-Khan intended to solve this problem by robbing his neighbors and capturing their land. By and large, he had no other way.

Beginning of conquest

We, Mongols, Discipline,

Killed - and go myself under the sword.

N. Zabolotsky,
"How Beluk said goodbye to Mongolia"

The guarantee of successful conquest was to be a highly efficient internal organization of the young Mongolian state. Genghis Han held a number of reforms reflected in Great Yasa. Usually, Yasu is called a vault of laws, but it has more resembled a collection of Genghis-Khan's sayings made by him at different times and in different reasons. The idea of \u200b\u200bthis collection was borrowed in China, where they were always very popular. The last example is the quotation of Mao Zedong. Jasa was created for a long time and finally took shape already by the end of the life of Genghis-Khan.

Banknote Dignity in 1000 Mongolian Tuggers with a portrait of Genghis Khan.

The "good" was considered loyalty and courage, and "evil" - cowardice and betrayal. If the warrior fled from the battlefield or betrayed his khan, he was executed. If the enemy, even having captured, preserved loyalty to his lord, he was gentled and taken in the ranks of the Mongolian army.

Genghis Khan divided the entire population of Mongolia on "Dozens", jaguna(hundreds), ministry of Health(thousand) and tumenes (tens of thousands). These were both administrative units of the Mongolian state, and the division of the Mongolian army. All Mongolia's men's population served in the army. In one "dozen" usually served close relatives, members of one Aila. There was a rule by which in the case of cowardice or betrayal of one warrior, the entire "dozen" was executed. Thus, each Ail for his own survival was forced to raise his children by brave soldiers, completely devoteed by Khan.

At the head of the units stood Neohs. Neyon not only commanded the unit on the battlefield, but also received some income from families whose members served in this unit. Under the fear of the death penalty, Mongol was forbidden to move from one "ten" to another, that is, actually from one Noyon to another. Han appointed squad commander from among the most loyal noons, although usually the commander and subordinates were members of one tribe.

The basis of the Mongolian army was the cavalry, divided into light and heavy. Each strain of an easy cavalry had two horses, a saber, a battle ax, two onions, 20 arrows, a light spear and leather armor. A heavy cavalry in addition to all this was also a heavy spear and a sword. Usually, the easy cavalry fired the enemy from the onions, and then pretended that he retreats, luring the enemy under an unexpected height of a heavy cavalry.

Genghis Khan created two special details. The first of them, the so-called keshikwas a detachment of personal bodyguards of the Great Han. Cached They were recruited from the number of young noons and enjoyed huge privileges. Their main task was to fight the enemies of Khan among the Mongols themselves. In the time of Genghis Khan Keshik, there were 150 warriors. In addition, it was created detachment BagaturovIn which the best soldiers gained. Bagas always were in the forefront and the first to fight the opponent.

XIII A century: Glory or death. Easy cafia is an advanced detachment of the Mongolian army.

Genghis Khan also created exploration and well-established courier service. After conquering North China, Mongols began to actively use siege guns serviced by Chinese engineers. As for the Mongolian commander, they were prescribed to lead their army from the rear and without extreme need not to risk their own lives. After all, after the death of the leader, the army turned into a unorganized crowd and was doomed to defeat. Therefore, not personal heroism was required from the commander, but a well-working head. At the same time, there is a legend, according to which Genghis Khan himself always fought in the first ranks of his army, along with the buggers. Most likely, it does not correspond to reality.

Yasa installed the following procedure for the section of military production: 60% of the loaded for the army, 20% - jikhangir (head of the campaign), 20% - kagan. Since Genghis Khan usually led all conquering campaigns, by the end of his life he possessed two fifth of all the wealth of North China, Central Asia and some other countries. This makes it one of the richest people in world history.

The first victims of the Mongolian army, which consisted of some estimates, about 100 thousand soldiers, were Buryats, Yakuts and some other peoples of Southern Siberia. Led these conquests not chingis-khan himself, and his son Juci. After the war with Mongols, Yakuta went north to the areas of their present habitat. The capture of Southern Siberia handed over to the Mongols of the Mongols of the Iron deposits necessary to ensure a huge army weapon.

In 1207, Mongols attacked the tangut state Western Siawho was located between China and Mongolia. Tanguts had a stubborn resistance to Mongols, which Genghis-Khan was able only to 1209. The remains of Tangutov fought against the Mongols until 1227. In 1209, Genghis-Khan managed to conquer Uigurov. By 1211, the land of Kyrgyz and Primorye were also under the power of the Mongols.

It is interesting: The Mongolian invasion in Primorye existed a fairly developed civilization, which built the city and even developed his own writing. The warriors of Genghis-Khan erased her from the face of the earth, not leaving a trace. This civilization was opened by archaeologists only at the end of the XX century.

Golden Horde. The construction of the mine is in full swing.

After that, it was China's turn. Actually, at that time there were two Chinese states: North jin Empire And South empire Sun.. These two empires constantly fought with each other, as the Empire Sun Rules actually Chinese dynasty, and Jin's empire arose as a result of the conquest of North China jurchzhenia. Zhurzhenzheny, who came to China from Manchuria, behaved there as conquerors, and the ethnic Chinese of Lyuto hated them. Thus, all the forces of the Jin dynasty were focused on the fight against southern China and with their own subjects. This facilitated the task of Genghis Khan.

In 1211, the Mongolian army attacked Jin's empire. Army Jin took a defensive position at the exit from Bajersky Gorge And did not attack the Mongols at the moment when they passed through the gorge and were most vulnerable. Moreover, the Jin Commander put in Genghis-Khan informed about the location of his troops. As a result, the Mongols won a lightweight victory by destroying the thousands of Chinese army. In 1213, the Genghis Khan army overcame the front of the Great Wall of China, and in 1215 he took the capital of Jin's empire Yanjin (Modern Beijing). By 1217, Mongols won all Chinese lands north of the Juanhe River and destroyed about 90 cities. Jin's emperor, in the hands of which only a relatively small territory south of Juanhe, settled in Kaifina. After that, Genghis Han suspended Natisk to Jin and turned his eyes towards Central Asia.

Conquest of Central Asia

In the wilderness of eastern territories

Where the wind beat in the face and chest

As primitive crematorium,

More chinghis flavored way.

N. Zabolotsky,
"Road of Genghis Khan"

As mentioned above, after the defeat of Nimanov, their Khan Kuchluk, together with the remnants of his army, fled in Karakinese Khanate. In 1208, in the midst of the war of the Mongols with the Western Sia, the troops of Kuchluk attacked the Army of Genghis Khan. After losing in the battle on the shores of Irtysh, Kuchluk calmed down for a while, but by 1218 he began to present serious danger to Genghis-Khan again. By that time, Kuchluk had already managed to become Khan Karakitayev.

XIII A century: Glory or death.
These brave luggage will meet everyone from their own way.

Deciding to end the Karakinese threat, Genghis Khan stopped the war against Jin. However, his army was so exhausted by a long war, which he was able to allocate only two tumen for the campaign against Kuchluk. At the head of these Tumen, one of the best Mongolian commander Jbe According to the nickname "Arrow".

Jab's troops were much inferior in the number of Army Karakitayev. But Sly Mongol managed to set up a significant part of his subjects against Kuchluk. After the cross-timer began in Karakinese Khanate, Jebe easily won this state. The Army Kuchluk was again broken, and he himself is executed. The settled population of Khanate, who confessed with Islam, passed on the side of the Mongols, because Kuchluk subjected to Muslims to persecutions, and Jabbe allowed them public services. Muslim populated by the city of Balasagun surrendered to Mongolas without a fight, for which he received the name of the Gobalyk from them, that is "a good city". Conquering Karakitayev, Mongols went on the border of powerful Khorezma.

By the beginning of the XIII century. Khorezm was a strong Muslim state that united Iran and most of Central Asia. On its territory there were such rich cities like Samarkand and Bukhara. However, Shahh Khorezm Ala hell-Dean Mohammed IIit was necessary to fight against the strong Kipchak (Polovtsy) of the aristocracy, which occupied key posts in the government and in the army.

Apparently, Genghis Han was originally going to fight with Khorezm, but to conduct mutually beneficial trade with him. He sent a large caravan to Khorezm with goods, but the governor of the border Khorezm city Reflect ordered to destroy the Mongolian merchants, suspecting diversants in them. After that, Genghis Han sent the embassy to the yard of Shah himself, demanding an apology and issuing him responsible for the murder of merchants of the governor. However, the governor of Refire was one of the leaders of the Kipchak party, and Shah, afraid to provoke a new uprising, rejected all the requirements of Genghis Khan. Moreover, the Shah ordered one of the Mongolian ambassadors beheaded, and the rest - to shave beard. The Mongolian Han could not disassemble such an insult, and the war became inevitable.

Mongols under the walls of Samarkand.

The invasion of Khorezm, apparently, was the largest military operation of Genghis Khan. If you believe the sources, the Mongolian army, invading Khorezm in 1219, consisted of 20 tumenes, that is, about 200 thousand soldiers. At the head of the army, Genghis-Khan himself stood, and at the head of individual Tumenes - his sons and the most capable commander. Among the commanders of the Tumen, the already mentioned Jebe and Subedei Bagatur.. The campaign plan was designed to take into account the intelligence data.

Shah did not trust his troops and did not venture to give Mongols the battle in the open field. Instead, he dispersed his warriors through fortified cities. This facilitated the Mongols of their task, since it provided them with a constant numerical superiority over the scattered troops of Shah.

The first Mongols took refill. His governor, because of which, in fact, the war began, was preparing for a stubborn defense. However, one of his military leaders moved to the side of Mongols and opened the gate to them. As you can see, the Mongols, intolerable to betrayal in their own ranks, at the same time willingly used the services of the reinstaters. Most of the inhabitants of the reflection were killed, and the governor of Genghis Khan ordered to fill the molten silver in the ears.

In 1221, the Mongols after a five-month siege took the capital of Khorezm Urgent. Soon Bukhara and Khodode were taken. Samarkand and several other cities surrendered to Mongolas without a fight, believing promises that life would be preserved.

If the city rendered resistance to Mongols, then his fate was always the same. First, all the townspeople were displayed in the field, after which the city was plundered. Taking out all values \u200b\u200bfrom the city, Mongols demolished city walls, and often destroyed the whole city, leaving a huge ash region in his place. Craftsmen with families, as well as young women hijacked into slavery, all the rest, as a rule, were killed. Sometimes the Mongols also gentle healthy boys, not trained with craft. They were used to maintain siege machines.

Mongolian army.

The immediate surrender to the mercy of the winner, as a rule, saved the city from complete destruction. However, robbery and mass murders occurred in this case.

Sometimes the Mongols cut out not only citizens, but also the inhabitants of rural areas adjacent to them. Sometimes had to make so many murders that warriors were missing, and the slaves who followed the army were attracted to this terrible work. After one such massacre, only the counting of the killed lasted as many as 13 days.

Before the arrival of Mongols, Middle Asia was a prosperous agricultural area. The Mongols were killed by farmers, cut down the gardens, pulled out the fields and destroyed the irrigation system created by the centuries. Huge territories turned into a barren desert. As for the craftsmen addressed to slavery, at first they were hijacked in Mongolia. Later, the Mongols began to create large workshops in the conquered countries themselves, in which local artisans worked.

Ala Ad-Dean Mohammed fled to Iran and soon died there with unexplained circumstances. New Shah became his son Jelal Ad-Dean. Genghis Khan did not go further Samarkand, but sent troops to the conquest of Iran. Jelal Ad-Dean gathered the remains of the Khorezmian army and gave Mongols a few battles. However, in the end he was broken and fled to India. Mongols tried to pursue him and there, but stumbled upon fierce resistance and retreated. Jelal Ad-Dean, settled in India, continued to attack Mongols, until he died in 1231. The dynasty of Shahh Khorezma was stopped with his death.

Battle on Kalka

In the same summer, in our sin, our approval is not enough, nobody has a good one: who is the essence and repairer ... And the Tatars are called, but the investment of the Taurmena, and the other lives ... God is one of the news, who is the essence and repaire izidosh.

Novgorod chronicle

Having finished with Khorezm, Genghis Khan, headed by most of his army, moved back to Mongolia. At the same time, he sent two tumem led by Jebe and Subedem to the West to prove the soil before the new campaign.

Golden Horde. Mongolian avant-garde stepped on Ryazan lands. What awaits them ahead?

Jebe and Subedei warned from the south of the Caspian Sea, devastated Azerbaijan and Armenia and in 1222 caused a decisive defeat Georgia. Advanced on north, Mongols collided with a strong coalition, which included polovtsy (Kipchak), alans (Ossetians), lezgins and circassians. I have not been able to break this coalition in the open battle, Jebe again used the reception, who had already brought him success during the Karakinese campaign. He presented the rich gifts to Polovtsy Khanam and swore in eternal friendship. Polovtsy believed and left their allies. After breaking the Alans, Circassians and Lezgins, Mongols attacked Polovtsy. Such treachery, from the point of view of the Mongols, was completely justified, since it contributed to victory.

Frequently fenced by Polovtsy, at the very beginning of 1223 Mongols invaded the Crimea and took the genomese colony by storming Surozh (Zander). After that, they again attacked Polovtsy. In the face of an imminent defeat, the Polovtsy turned for help from Russian princes.

Attention - myth: The view is widespread that the Russians and Polovtsy were fatal enemies and all the time fought with each other, and the first were always the first to attack. However, in fact, Russians and Polovtsy not only committed each other mutual Raude, but also actively traded with each other. Many princes were friends with Polovtsy Khan and even took their daughters in his wife.

In the spring of 1223, several Polovtsy Khan came to Kiev, among whom was Kotyan., Testing Galician Prince Mstislav Mstislavovich removed. Mstislav deleted was one of the best Russian commander of the time and enjoyed the well-deserved respect of other princes.

Princes from all southern Russia gathered in Kiev to listen to Polovtsy. Kotyan asked them to help against Mongols, said at the same time: "Today, Tatars captured our land, tomorrow they will take yours." At first, the princes did not want to go to a dangerous adventure, but Mstislav deleted, taking advantage of his huge authority, convinced them to help Polovtsy. Princes decided to meet the Mongols and attack them in Polovtsy steppes. The campaign was made by Mstislav delete and another 17 South Russian princes along with their squads. Grand Duke Vladimirsky Yuri Vsevolodovich sent them to the rescue squad Vasilka RostovskyBut this detachment was late for a decisive battle.

Golden Horde. Mongolian lazutchik in the village of Russian warriors.

Shortly after the Russians connected with Polovtsy, Mongolian ambassadors came to them. If you believe Russian chronicles, the ambassadors suggested the following: "We heard that you go against us, and we didn't touch your land - neither cities or villages. We came, in the will of God, on their horses and Konyukh - Polovtsy. They caused you a lot of evil, for us and beat them. Take the world better with us, and drive them away. " As you can see, the old fox jab again decided to apply his favorite reception, rauoring the allies. But the Russian princes, sciences of Gorky Polovtsy experience, did not lead to this deception. Moreover, they executed ambassadors, which contradicted their own rules.

Going down the Dnieper, Russian-Polovetsky troops near Kherson came across the advanced detachment of the Mongols and broke it off. After this first victory, the Russians emerged "dizziness from success." Leaving the shore of the Dnieper, they moved deep into the steppe, where on the shores river rings Faced with tammes jebe and subedea.

Assess the number of Russian and Mongolian troops in the ensuing battle is very difficult. Judging by the fact that Jabbe and Subedea initially had only 2 tumen, with whom they stood several battles and did not receive any reinforcements, the Mongols were most likely 15-20 thousand warriors. As for the Russians, the princely squad has usually numbered from 300 to 500 warriors. Multiplying this number by the number of princes participating in the campaign, we will receive 6-9 thousand people. Most likely, the forces of the Mongols and Russian-Polivotsky coalition were about equal.

Differences arose between the Russian princes. Mstislav Kyivsky I wanted to give Mongols a defensive battle. Kievans and part of Chernigov began to be piping on a convenient to defense stony height. Nevertheless, the rest of the princes together with the Polovtsy on May 31, 1223 moved to the left bank and attacked the enemy.

Medieval II: Total War.Mongolian heavy cavalry in battle on Kalka.

While most of the warriors are still preparing for battle, the detachment was sent forward. Daniel Volynsky and Polovtsy Khana Yaruna.The Mongols took this detachment into the ring and broke it after a fierce contraction, and the first was filtered. Following the fact that Mongols attacked the main forces of Russians. This attack was for the Russians completely unexpected - most of the warriors did not even have time to wear armor. As a result, the battle turned into a massacre. The surviving warriors led by Mstislav remote and Daniel Volynsky fled from the battlefield and slipped without stopping to the Dnieper himself pursued by Mongols. Mstislav and Daniel eventually managed to escape, but still six princes, including Mstislav Chernigovsky, Died from the hands of Mongols.

Meanwhile, the Mongols took the fortified camp of Kiev in the siege. On the third day, the siege of Mongols offered Mstislav Kiev to surrender under the condition that he himself and all his people will be returned home for redemption. Mstislav believed Mongolas, but those, of course, deceived him. All surrendered warriors were interrupted, and Mstislava and two more princes put on the ground, the heads of the boards. On these boards, Mongolian military leaders arranged a feast on the occasion of victory. The princes lying under the boards died painful death.

Attention - myth: Such an unusual way of the execution of Russian princes is often attributed to the cruelty of the Mongols. In fact, Jebe and Subedey so showed their respect for defeated opponents. After all, the Russian princes died, without having lost a drop of blood, and therefore, in Mongolian concepts, they died a noble death.

After his victory, Mongols passed a raid according to the Dnieper, and then turned in the middle voltage. There, at the mouth of Kama, they faced the troops of the Volga Bulgaria and suffered from them a cruel defeat. After that, Jebe and Subedei turned home and in 1225 reached Mongolia.

The Novgorod chronicler so summed up the tragic events of 1223: "And the sink, and cry, and sadness around the city and in the village ... Tatars are returned from the Dnieper River; And not in charge of where the essence came and the kde of Sonya again. "

Cengis Hana

In those days the composition of the peoples of the world

Was confused and shame

And he was for the commander

The invisible world Asian.

All this world of living creatures,

People, tribes and whole countries

Paid and Catering and Dani,

As I intended Genghis Khan.

N. Zabolotsky,
"What did Karakorum lived"

Returning to Mongolia, Genghis Khan discovered that they were broken back in 1209. Tanguts again raised their heads, revived their state and concluded against the Mongols the Union with the Jin Empire. In 1226, Genghis Han headed the campaign against Tangutov and forced them to surrender them, capturing all their cities, smashing all their army and kill all the members of the ruling family.

At the very end of the campaign against Tangutov, August 18, 1227, Genghis Khan suddenly died. The reason for his death is still unknown. According to one version, the Great Conqueror died, falling from the horse, on the other - died from pneumonia, and on the third - was killed by the tangut princess taken.

Golden Horde. This archer in front of the Shatter - Khan Bati his own person.

The place where Genghis Han was buried is still not found. He was buried in a deep secret, and no sign was left on his grave. So demanded the customs of his native tribe, Taichzhiutov. They suggest, however, that the Great Han was devoted to the ground near the River Oneon, that is, in those places where he was born and where the Lord was proclaimed.

In less than 20 years, Mongola managed to create a huge empire, which included many countries and peoples. The territory conquered by the Mongols was so great that they had to preserve the power in the hands of many defeated rulers. These rulers continued to rule their peoples, but were obliged to pay the Mongols tribute and sometimes put auxiliary armed detachments. In addition, each new ruler must confirm its rights to power, receiving a special one from the hands of Mongolian Han label.

Shortly before his death, Genghis-Khan divided his possessions into four ulus, at the head of which his sons Juci, UGEDEY, Tuy and Chagytai. Since Juci died a few months before his father, his ulus, located in the west of the Mongolian Empire, was divided between the two grandsons of Genghis Khan. These grandchildren were called Batu(Russians called him in Batym) and Horde.

Dying, Genghis Khan bequeathed his descendants to continue conquering hiking and walk to "Last Sea", or "Seas of francs" (that is, the Atlantic Ocean).

In 1229, after a biennial mourning of Genghis Khan, Mongolian to know gathered at Kurultay in the Mongolian capital KarakorumTo choose a new great Khan. According to Mongolian customs, Genghis Khan was supposed to inherit his younger son. However, Kurultay elected New Great Khan Ugheda, because such was the death will of the Genghis Khan himself.

In 1231, Mongols resumed a war against Jin's empire. This time they acted together with the Sun Empire. In 1234, the United Mongol-Chinese troops took the capital of the Zhurzhen Emperor the city of Kaifyn. Jin's empire stopped existing. In 1231, Mongols attacked for the first time Korea.

In 1232, the troops of Khan Batu, who became the sole ruler of Ulus Juchi, along with Mongolia, a large detachment of Subedea tried to conquer a major squad Volga Bulgaria. However, the Bulgars reiterated the onslaught of the Mongols reopened, and for Subedea, it was already the second consecutive defeat from the Volga Bulgar.

Khan Ugteji.

It is interesting: Turkic-speaking Bulgarians at one time were nomaded in the Northern Black Sea region. In the VII century This people split into several groups. One of them went to the Danube and, winning the Slavs, founded the Danube Bulgaria, existing so far. Another group ran into the Volga and Kama merge area, founding a powerful state there, known as the Volga Bulgaria. The largest cities of the Volga Bulgarians were Bulgarians and Biil. They also founded Kazan and Elabuga, who were at that time small border fortresses. Kazan Tatars and Chuvashi are descendants of the Volga Bulgar.

Mongols realized that the forces of one Ulus Juchi Europe did not conquer them. On Kurultae, 1235 it was decided to send a battle for their help from other uluses. In 1236, under the start of Batu there was a large army, the exact number of which is unknown. The total number of Mongolian troops at that time did not exceed 150 thousand people, and their large part was located in China. The forces of the ulus juchi actually numbered about 40 thousand warriors. Thus, the invasion forces in Europe numbered at least 50 and not more than 120 thousand people.

In the fall of 1236, Mongols invaded the Volga Bulgaria for the third time and finally defeated it. The finally the resistance of the Bulgar was broken only by 1240. Part of the Bulgar ran into Russian lands. Military detachments joined Mongols mordevawhich paid tribute to Russian and Bulgaram.

In the fall of 1237, the troops of Batu focused in the area of \u200b\u200bthe current Voronezh. Their goal was Northeast Russia.

Dissolius of Russian land

In those days, by the grace of Batiev,

Palm yield to bones

Ancient Kiev has smoked

At the foot of the unborn guests.

There was no more wonderful songs,

Lying in the tomb Yaroslav,

And silenced Virgines in the hryvnias,

Last dance wanging.

N. Zabolotsky,
"Beginning of travel"

In December 1237, Mongols invaded the territory of the Ryazan Principality. Baty sent an embassy to Ryazan princes, demanding from them the tenth of all their property. Subsequent events clearly show that the Russians had no idea about the true power of the Mongols and were not completely afraid of them.

First, Ryazan princes rejected Baty's ultimatum. Secondly, when Ryazans asked for the help of Vladimir Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, he refused to support them, but decided "SPECIAL OF BRAND STILITY", that is, smash the Mongols, relying only on your own strength. Thirdly, Ryazan princes, even left without the support of Vladimirs, decided to give Mongols the battle in the open field!

It remains only to be surprised in such a fearlessness, because, according to modern estimates, the Ryazan Principality could put no more than 7 thousand trained warriors, and Vladimir - no more than 25 thousand.

If you believe Russian chronicles, in the first collision between Russian and Mongols, Ryazan warriors fought with extraordinary violence. For example, one of the princes was cut several times across the Mongolian army.

But, despite all the heroism of Russian warriors, they all died, and on December 21, after the six-day siege, fell Ryazan. In punishment for fierce resistance, the city was destroyed to the ground, and most of its residents died. Few surviving Ryazans went into the small town of Pereyaslavl-Ryazan, who soon began to call Ryazan. Ryazan on the old place was never rebuilt.

After the fall of Ryazan survived the two squads of Ryazan warriors. One of them, under the head of the boyar Evpathy Kolovrat,he became partisan in the dense Ryazan forests, attacking small detachments of Mongols. According to legend, Batyu managed to destroy this squad, only surrounding it and putting into the course of throwing guns. Another Ryazan detachment went to Kolomnawhere connected with Vladimir border guards and gave the Mongola a new fight. Under Kolomny Russians again fought with a light. They even managed to kill one of the commander- genghisidand this happened extremely rarely.

Medieval II: Total War.Mongolian throwing guns are not very taller and often, but very far and scary.

At the end of January, Mongols destroyed Moscow, and on February 4, 1238 were besieged Vladimir. Yuri Vsevolodovich shortly before he left his capital with a small friend, leaving a strong garrison and all his family in it. Vladimir possessed excellent fortifications, but they did not resist the Mongolian siege guns. On February 7, Mongols broke into the city and killed all his defenders and civilians. In the same month, the troops of Batiy burned another 15 Russian cities, including Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl and Tver.

Meanwhile, Yuri Vsevolodovich did not sit back. Located on the shores river SitHe began to collect the squads of all Vladimir-Suzdal Princes there. Apparently, the calculation was that the Mongolians are exhausted by the bloody storms of well-fortified cities in the united forces of the largest of the Russian principalities.

At the end of February, Bati divided his strength. One squad approached the Torogo and took it after a two-week siege. Second squad, led by a commander Burunday, Attacks Yuri Vsevolodovich's troops. March 4 on the shores of the city occurred "Sword evil"in which the Russians were broken down by the head. The Grand Duke Yuri fell in battle, and Vasilko Rostovsky, at one time he did not reach the rolling, was captured and was devoted to death.

After that, the Mongols went to NovgorodBut, without reaching him of all a hundred miles, they suddenly turned south. Why Mongols abandoned the opportunity to plunder a rich shopping city, still remains a mystery. Perhaps the big losses of Mongols were afraid of powerful Novgorod fortifications. Or maybe they decided that they would not find in Novgorod Earth, always imported grain from the Vladimir principality, a sufficient amount of food? Or did they stop the Spring Railway, which turned the road into the impassable messenger? We do not know the answer to this question.

After a few years, Mongols launched Novgorod Dania. And he helped them to do this no one else like a prince Alexander Nevskiyfound later to face saints. When Novgorod people interpret arrived in Novgorod baskakov (Dani Mongolian collectors), Alexander Nevsky arrived in the city with his warriors and quickly suppressed the riot, execute all the instigators. After that, he helped the Mongolas to hold the first in the history of Russia population censusnecessary for the needs of the collection of Dani.

The ruin of Suzdal Mongols.

Alexander, famous for his victories over the Germans and Swedes, was actively collaborated with Mongols and, having received a label from them to the Grand Duchy Vladimir, he himself suppressed all the antimongy speeches. Apparently, he did not believe that Rus could defeat Mongols. Later, his cooperation policies with conquerors continued moscow PrincesMoving for Mongols tribute from Russian lands (for a certain percentage) and helped Mongols in their punitive expeditions. Another position adhered to tver Princes, several times led folk uprisings against mongolian Iga.

But back to the events of 1238 by turning to the south, Mongols again passed throughout Northeastern Russia. This time they broke their strength on many small detachments and moved a wide front, robbing and destroying what they did not have time to plunder and destroy in the first right. One of these small detachments came across a small town Kozelsk And I stood under its walls as many as seven weeks, carrying big losses. Only by receiving reinforcements with siege guns, Mongols were able to take this small town. Mongols gave Kozelsk nickname "Angry City" (Recall that "Good city" Posted in the country of Karakitayev). After that, Mongols returned to the Volga Steppes.

In the spring of 1239, Mongols fell on South Rus. Marta Pal Pereyaslavl. After that, Baty took a pause, and in the fall attacked the Chernihiv principality. After smaking Chernihiv squads in a field battle, Mongols took the capital of the principality on October 18. Mongols came to the walls Kiev.

Mongolian avant-garde did not decide to storm the big city approach and began to wait for the approach of the main forces. Meanwhile, the Kiev Prince, frightened by Mongols, threw the city for a mercy of fate and ran to Hungary. Once every Russian prince wanted to rule in Kiev. Now no one wanted to defend the doomed city. Finally, Daniel Galitsky became Kiev Prince, the participant of the battle on Kalka and the powerful rule of South-Western Russia. He sent a detachment to Kiev, at the head of which was the governor Dmitr..

At the end of November, Mongols were besieged Kiev. After a multi-day assault, they broke into the city on December 6. Kiev defenders fought for each quarter, but in the end were forced to retreat to Tentine Church. The church collapsed, driving under his wreckage of the last defenders of Kiev. According to one version, it was destroyed by Mongols, on the other, the church could not stand the huge mass of Kievans, looking for refuge on her roof. Voivod Dmitr was captured to Mongols, but they gave him freedom for his unparalleled courage.

Mongolian warriors are constructed by Russian artisans captured into slavery.

It is interesting: The Tenty Church was built by Prince Vladimir Sainry shortly after the baptism of Russia. She was the first stone church in Russia and before the construction of the Church of St. Sophia was the main church of Kiev.

Now on the way Batya lay lay Galician-Volyn Principality, one of the strongest in the then Russia. Mongols were able to take the main cities of the Principality Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky, but did not manage to take a few fortresses located in the Carpathians. Apparently, Baty, having remembered about Kozelsk, did not want to spend time and strength on the siege of these latter foci of Russian resistance. In front of the Mongols lay Western Europe, and behind it - "Sea of \u200b\u200bFranks", the ultimate goal target.

That before Russia, then she has been addicted to Golden Horde(So \u200b\u200bin Russia was called Ulus Juchi). The Ordane Khans were collected with Russian land, they walked among themselves the Russian princes, passing the label to the Grand Diction, that one, then another. Rus has undergone terrible ruin: out of 74 Russian cities were destroyed 49, and 14 were never restored. Russian material and spiritual culture was discarded on the century ago, many crafts disappeared, almost stopped connections with Europe.

Almost all the warriors died in bloody battles. The surviving princes gained new priggers from the number of commoners and treated them not as their Vassalam, but as the holopas. Mongolian invasion turned Russian princes in despotic self-containers, predetermining the nature of power in Russia for many centuries ahead.

Gallop in Europe

In the spring of 1241, the Mongolian army, weakened in two Russian campaigns, but still very strong, the Carpathians passed and invaded Hungary. This country is a huge and accurately fertile steppe - an ideal way, according to which Mongolian cavalry could reach the very center of Europe. Therefore, Baty sent his main forces against Hungarians, and the smaller detachment threw against Poland..

XIII A century: Glory or death.Forward, to the last sea!

April 11, 1241 Mongols broke the 60-thousand Hungarian king's army Bella IV.in the battle of river Shaio.. After that, they took and destroyed the capital of Hungary city Pest.

Meanwhile, the second detachment passed on the ice of the Vistula and took on March 24 on March 24 Krakow. After that, the Mongols advanced further to the West, cutting off Poland from Germany and besieged the powerful fortress Breslau. The United Polish-German Army led by Prince Poland and Silesia to meet them Heinrich II pious. A few days later, the Czech ruler's troops were connected with her Vaclav I.

Having learned the exact position of Czech and German Polish troops from their intelligence officers, Mongolian commander Khan Kaid. Immediately removed the siege with Breslau and attacked Henry's army. Mongols approached enemies under the cover of a dense chimney (ashled cane ligaments were used as flue checkers) and began to fill them out of the onions. European archers also tried to shoot on the Mongols, but they did not see anything because of smoke.

To intercept the initiative, Heinrich decided to enter his main shock power into battle - Teutonic and Polish knights. The knights attacked almost blindly, since they also did not see the enemy because of smoke. However, they managed to overturn the mongol's easy cone.

Battle of lignice.

Mongols retreated, lubricating Poles and Tutons under heavy cavalry. The heavy cavalry of both sides came together in hand-to-hand combat, and the Mongols constantly shouted in Polish "Saw!", Hoping to sow panic in the ranks of the enemy. As a result of a fierce fight, European knights were overturned, and Heinrich himself died. In the evening, Mongols collected 9 bags of cut enemy ears on the battlefield. This battle entered the story as battle of lignice.After her, the troops of Cyda went to Hungary on the connection with the battle.

In the next, 1242 Mongols tried to take Vienna, but failed. Then they turned to the south, in Croatia, and went out on the Adriatic coast.

By this time, the Mongolian invasion finally exhaled. Forces for a throw to the "sea of \u200b\u200bfrancs" in Batya no longer had, especially since the German rulers had already managed to collect significant forces by that time. At this time, from the distant Mongolia came the news of the death of the great Khan Ugheda. Battered was to participate in the Kurultai chartering on this. Under this pretext, the Mongols turned to the east, and went into the steppe, raving on the road Serbia, Bosnia and Bulgaria.

Due to the resistance of the Volga Bulgar, Russians, as well as Hungarians, Poles and Germans, most of Europe avoided the Mongolian invasion.

Completion of conquest

In the country Ksanad blessed

The palace built a Kubla Khan,

Where Alpha runs, the stream is sacred,

Through the MGLU giant caves, foam,

Blows into the sleepy ocean.

S. T. Karj,
"Kubla Khan, or a vision in a dream"

Khan Hubilai, founder of the empire yuan.

After the death of Ugheda, a long struggle for power began between the descendants of Genghis-Khan. Finally, in 1251, the new kagan became MINE,son Toluha and grandson of Genghis Khan. He continued to conquer both in the West and in the East.

In 1256, troops under the leadership of Brother Munke Hulagu. Completed the conquest of Iran and invaded Mesopotamia. In 1258, they took Baghdad and destroyed khalifat Abbasida. After that, Hulag invaded Syria and began to prepare for the conquest of Egypt. But in 1260, the Egyptian Sultan broke the Mongols and drove them to the east.

At the same time, at the other end of Eurasia, another brother Munk Khubilai.(in Europe it was called Kubl Khan) won state Dali. and Tibet. By this time, the Mongol Empire reached the greatest size. As already mentioned, it was divided into several uluses. Ulus Kagan included Mongolia, Manchuria and North China. Altai with the regions adjacent to it was ruled by the descendants of Ugrian. In Ulus, Chagata included the eastern part of Central Asia. Finally, Ulus Juchi (Golden Horde) belonged to the Volga region, the North Caucasus, Crimea, part of Central Asia and Western Siberia. On the lands conquered by Hulag, a new ulus was created, managed by his descendants.

In 1259, Munke died. Kurultay chose the new kagan younger son Toluya Arigbugu. But Kubilai did not obey the decision of the Kurulta, and also proclaim himself to Kagan. Civil war broke out, the victory in which Hubilay won. But while two kagans fought for power over the empire, Dzhuchi and Hulagu's uluses were separated from her. The United Mongolian Empire ceased to exist.

But Mongolian conquests have not yet ended. In 1267, Khubilay began the war against the Sun Empire. In 1271, he suffered his capital from Karakorum to Yanjing. Taking advantage of the southern China civilians, Khubilay, by 1279, conquered the Empire Song and united all China under his authority. Korea also got under his power.

Khubilay proclaimed himself with the emperor of China and founded a new imperial dynasty yuanwhich the rules of China up to 1368 very soon with the Mongolian rulers of China, there was the same as with other conquerors of the subway, both to them and after them. They adopted Chinese culture and largely began to resemble the Chinese more than on the Mongols. True, the emperors of Yuan also did not become very Chinese, apparently because of too a short period of their domination in China.

Fight between the Japanese and Mongols.

Mongolian fleet.

In 1281, Hubilay decided to conquer Japan and sent a powerful fleet to her shores. According to legend, the Mongolian fleet counted 1000 ships, and on each ship was one hundred warriors. The Japanese began to hurry to prepare for defense, but their chances against the army of Kubila were small. Suddenly, a terrible typhoon began, which destroyed most of the Mongolian fleet. A small part of the Mongolian army still got to the shores of Japan, but was easily destroyed samurai. This Typhoon, who saved Japan from Mongols, the Japanese called "kamikaze"that in Japanese means "divine wind".

After that, Hubilay organized several trips against Burma and Vietnamas well as on the island Java. In these campaigns, the Mongols were widely used by Chinese soldiers and ships. But the yuan failed to gain themselves in the indochier of the Empire. The Burmese campaign of 1300 is traditionally considered the completion of Mongolian conquests.

Mongols in computer games

Mongols are found in a variety of strategies. For example, they are in all games from the series SID Meier "S Civilization. IN Civilization II.mongol conquests are even devoted to a separate scenario called "Great Horde". In the third Civilizationmongols - the militarists prone to expansion. They start the game with a pottery, Military Code and free reconnaissance. Their unique detachment - keshikten. (Keshik Horse Archer), created instead of an ordinary knight. Keschikten is somewhat inferior to the knight in his combat performance, but it is cheaper and, most importantly, does not require iron to create.

For the Mongols can be played in Age of Empires II, Moreover, not only on single maps. In this game, a separate campaign is devoted to Mongol conquest.

In Game "XIII century: glory or death"there is also a campaign for the Mongols. It consists of five separate, not interconnected battles: Chayo, Legnica, City, rolling and clashes with hungals on one of the Carpathian pass. All battles are recreated quite accurately.

Mongol: War of Genghis Khan.Mixed in a bunch of horses, people ...

Medieval II: Total War.A small Mongolian squad turned a whole crowd of Russians.

IN Medieval II: Total War You can only head the Mongolian army in separate battles, for example, on Kalka. In the campaign, Mongols are not available. Like a natural disaster, they at a certain point appear on the edge of the card and begin to cause the player a lot of things.

In the recently emerged Russian strategy in real time "Golden Horde" Mongols are one of the three gaming races. Accordingly, they are dedicated to a separate campaign. The main difference between Mongols from Rusich and Crusaders lies in their high mobility. It also consists of their main advantage. Mongols can be transported from place to place all their buildings, and their city can move from one source of raw materials to another, which reduces the spraying of the forces on the map and much easier for the player's life. Mongolian warriors receive substantial bonuses, if they fight on horseback. In addition, Mongols can train warriors from peasants, and not from militia, like other nations. It cannot be said that the events in the campaign fully correspond to historical. But they are approximate to them. There are, however, rude blunders. For example, Mongolian heroes-commander, including Batu-Khan, Burundai, Jebe and Subedei, can "pump" and get a high level, only participating in hand-to-hand fights and exterminating enemies with whole crowds. Everything would be nothing, but only self-respecting Mongolian commander, especially hay-chingizids, did not participate in the battles. Their valor was not in the ability to wave a saber, but in the ability to give the right and timely teams.

The game "Mongol: War of Cenghis Khan"made based on the film "Mongol" and is devoted to the unification of Mongolia and the first conquering campaigns of Genghis Khan. Accordingly, there are campaigns for Mongols and for the empire Jin. The creators of the game tried to flush in the campaign all the battles of Genghis Khan. So, the player will have to follow the great commander to subjugate all the Mongolian tribes in turn. However, the missions are extremely monotonous. All battles end in a banal scholars "wall on the wall", and in the confusion of the fight it is absolutely impossible to disassemble where their own, and where other people's. Types of detachments in the game set, but the difference between them is described, in fact, one parameter. Military detachments have only three teams: go, attack and keep the position. There are no patrols, combat constructions and other delights.

In general, most of the games about Mongols are made very qualitatively, and historical inaccuracies occurring in them almost do not spoil the pleasure of the gameplay.

Mongol-Tatar invasion

The formation of the Mongolian state. At the beginning of the XIII century. In Central Asia, on the territory of Baikal and the Verkhovyev Yenisei and Irtysh, the Mongolian state was formed in the north to the southern regions of the desert of Gobi and the Great Wall of China. By the name of one of the tribes, nomaded near Lake Buyrnur in Mongolia, these nations were also called Tatars. Subsequently, all nomadic peoples with whom Rus behaved struggle, began to call Mongol-Tatars.

The main occupation of the Mongols was extensive nomadic cattle breeding, and in the north and in Taiga areas - hunting. In the XII century Mongols had a decay of primitive community relationships. From the medium of ordinary community-workers, which called Karach - Black people, Noyoni (Princes) were distinguished - to know; Having squads of nucers (warriors), she captured pastures under the cattle and part of young. Neuonov also had slaves. Noyon's rights determined "Yasa" - a collection of teachings and instructions.

In 1206, the congress of the Mongolian nobility was held on the Oneon River - Kurultay (Huhral), in which the leader of the Mongolian tribes was elected one of Neuonov: Techuchin, who received the name of Cenghis Khan - "Great Han", "sent by God" (1206-1227). By defeating their opponents, he began to manage the country through his relatives and local to know.

Mongolian army. Mongols had a well-organized army that retained generic ties. The army was divided into dozens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand Mongolian warriors were called "Darkness" ("Tumen").

Tumenes were not only military, but also administrative units.

The main shock power of the Mongols was the cavalry. Each warrior had two or three bows, a few quiver with arrows, an ax, a rope arcan, well-owning a saber. The warrior horse was covered with skins, which defended her from arrows and enemy weapons. The head, neck and chest of the Mongolian warrior from enemy arrows and copies closed the iron or copper helmet, leather shell. Mongolian cavalry possessed high mobility. At his lowered with a shaggy mane, endless horses, they could take a day to 80 km, and with hitch, trumpet and flamethrower tools - up to 10 km. Like other peoples, passing the stage of the formation of the state, the Mongols differed in force and monolithium. Hence the interest in expanding pastures and in organizing robberies to neighboring agricultural peoples, which were at a much higher level of development, although they experienced a period of fragmentation. This greatly facilitated the implementation of the conquest plans of Mongol-Tatars.

The defeat of Central Asia. Mongols began their campaigns with the conquest of neighbors - Buryat, Evenkov, Yakuts, Uigurov, Yenisei Kyrgyz (by 1211). Then they invaded China and in 1215 they took Beijing. Three years later, Korea was conquered. Defeating China (finally conquered in 1279), Mongols significantly increased their military potential. Flameless, trumpeted, chainers, vehicles, vehicles were taken into service.

In the summer of 1219, almost 200 thousand Mongolian army led by Genghis Khan began the conquest of Central Asia. The ruler of Khorezma (the country in the mouth of the Amudarya) Shah Mohammed did not accept the general battle, dismissed forces by cities. Supporting the stubborn resistance of the population, the invaders were assigned to the refrigeration, Hodgeny, Merv, Bukhar, Urgen and other cities. The ruler of Samarkand, despite the demand of the people to defend, passed the city. Mohammed himself fled to Iran, where he died soon.

Rich, blooming agricultural areas of Semirchye (Central Asia) turned into pastures. Irrigation systems created by centuries were destroyed. Mongols introduced the mode of brutal shares, artisans were captured. As a result of the conquest of Mongols of Central Asia, the nomadic tribes began to settle its territory. Sedded agriculture was supplanted with extensive nomadic cattle breeding, which slowed down the further development of Central Asia.

Invasion in Iran and Transcaucasia. The main power of the Mongols with fermented prey returned from Central Asia to Mongolia. The 30-thousandth army under the command of the best Mongolian military leaders Jebe and the subnedace went to the far intelligence campaign through Iran and Transcaucasia, west. After breaking the United Armenian-Georgian troops and applying enormous damage to the economy of the Transcaucasus, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the territory of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, since they met a strong resistance of the population. Past of Derbent, where there was a passage along the banks of the Caspian Sea, Mongolian troops came out in the North Caucasus steppes. Here they defeated Alanam (Ossetians) and Polovtsam, after which the city of Sudak (Surezh) in the Crimea was ruined. Polovtsy led by Khan Kotyan, the test of Galitsky Prince Mstislav removed, asked for help from Russian princes.

Battle on river Kalka. On May 31, 1223, the Mongols broke the union forces of Polovtsy and Russian princes in the Priazovsky steppes on the river Kalka. It was the last major joint military performance of Russian princes on the eve of the invasion of Batya. However, the mighty Russian Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimir-Suzdalsky, the son of Vsevoloda, did not participate in the campaign.

Princely reset affected and during the battle on Kalka. Kiev Prince Mstislav Romanovich, strengthened with his army on the hill, did not participate in the battle. Shelves of Russian warriors and Polovtsy, moving around the rolling, hit the advanced detachments of Mongol-Tatars, who retreated. Russian and Polovtsian shelves were fascinated by persecution. The approached the main Mongolian forces took persecuting Russian and Polovtsy warriors in the ticks and destroyed.

Mongols besieged the hill where the Kiev Prince strengthened. On the third day of the siege, Mstislav Romanovich believed the promise of the enemy with honor to let go of the Russians in the event of voluntary surrender and folded the weapon. He and his warriors were brutally killed by Mongols. Mongols reached the Dnieper, but they did not dare to enter into Rus. Defeat, equal to the battle on the river Kalka, Russia has not yet known. Of the priazovsky steppes, only the tenth of the troops returned to Russia. In honor of his victory, Mongols arranged "Pier on the bones". The princes captured by the princes crushed the boards on which the winners were sitting and drank.

Preparation of the campaign on Russia. Returning to the steppe, the Mongols took an unsuccessful attempt to capture Volzhskaya Bulgaria. Intelligence Battle showed that he can lead the invasion wars with Russia and its neighbors only by organizing a local farm'ngol campaign. At the head of this hike, grandson of Genghis Khan - Bati (1227-1255), who received all the territories in the West from his grandfather, "where the head of the Mongolian horse stands." His main military adviser was a subedty, who knew the theater of future hostilities.

In 1235, on Huhral, \u200b\u200bin the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum decided it was decided to the regional ledgeon. In 1236, Mongols mastered the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237 subjugated the nomadic peoples of the steppe. In the autumn of 1237, the main forces of Mongols, while going through the Volga, focused on the Voronezh River, aiming for Russian lands. In Russia, they knew about the hanging terrible danger, but the princely spreads were prevented to combine sics to unsubsion a strong and cunning enemy. There was no single command. Strengthening cities were built for defense from neighboring Russian principalities, and not from steppe nomads. Princely horseraded squads for armament and combat qualities were not inferior to Mongolian Neuon and Nuker. But the main mass of Russian troops was a militia - urban and rural warriors, giving mongols in armament and combat skills. Hence the defensive tactic, designed to exhaust the enemy forces.

Defense of Ryazan. In 1237, Ryazan was subjected to the first of the Russian lands. Vladimir and Chernihiv Princes refused Ryazan in help. Mongols were besieged to Ryazan and sent ambassadors who demanded humans and one tenth part "in everything." Fastened by the courageous answer of Ryazantians: "If we all are not, then everything will be yours." For the sixth day of the siege, the city was taken, the princely family and the surviving residents are interrupted. In the old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is a new city, located 60 km from the old Ryazan, before he was called Pereyaslavl Ryazan).

Conquest of Northeast Russia. In January 1238, on the river Oka, Mongols moved to Vladimir-Suzdal Earth. The battle with the Vladimir-Suzdal Rady occurred at the city of Kolomna, on the border of the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. In this battle, Vladimir army died, which actually predetermined the fate of northeastern Russia.

The enemy's strong resistance for 5 days was provided by the population of Moscow, led by Voevoda Philip Nyanka. After taking Mongols, Moscow was burned, and its inhabitants are interrupted.

February 4, 1238 Batya Zaedil Vladimir. The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km) his troops passed in a month. On the fourth day of the siege, the invaders through breaks in the fortress wall next to the golden gate broke into the city. Princely family and remnants of troops closed in the Assumption Cathedral. Mongols laid out the cathedral with trees and set fire.

After the capture of Vladimir, Mongols crashed into individual detachments and were crushed the city of Northeast Russia. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich before the invaders approach Vladimir went to the north of his land to collect military forces. Hastered the collected shelves in 1238 were broken down on the River Sit (the right influx of the Molog River), Knyaz Yuri Vsevolodovich himself died in the battle.

Mongol hordes moved to the North-West Rus. Everywhere they met the stubborn resistance of the Russians. Two weeks, for example, defended the distant suburb of Novgorod - Torzhok. The North-West Rus was saved from defeat, although the tribute paid.

Having reached the stone ignach cross - an ancient sign indicator on Valdai watershed (one hundred kilometers from Novgorod), Mongols retreated to the south, in the steppe to restore the loss and give rest to the tired troops. The departure was the nature of the "cliffs". Encatarating into individual detachments, the invaders "cleaned" Russian cities. Smolensk managed to fight off, other centers were crushed. The greatest resistance to Mongolas was provided in the period "Oblas" Kozelsk, who kept seven weeks. Mongols called Kozelsk "evil city."

Taking Kiev. In the spring of 1239, Bati defeated South Rus (Pereyaslavl South), in the fall - Chernihiv Principality. In the autumn of the next 1240 Mongolian troops, forcing the Dnieper, besieged Kiev. After a long defense, which was headed by the Voivode Dmitr, Tatars defeated Kiev. In the following 1241, Galico-Volyn Principality was attacked.

Camping Batya to Europe. After the defeat of Russia, Mongol hordes moved to Europe. Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Balkan countries were ruined. Mongols came to the borders of the German Empire, reached the Adriatic Sea. However, at the end of 1242, there are a number of failures in the Czech Republic and Hungary. From the distant Karakoruma came the news of the death of the great Khan Hube - the son of Genghis Khan. It was a convenient pretext to stop a hard hike. Baty turned his troops back to the east.

A decisive world-historical role in the rescue of the European civilization from the Mongolian Horde played the heroic struggle against the Russian and other peoples of our country, who assumed the first blow of the invaders. In fierce battles in Russia, the best part of the Mongolian troops died. Mongols have lost offensive power. They could not but reckon with the liberation struggle, which unfolded in the rear of their troops. A.S. Pushkin rightly wrote: "Russia was determined by a great destination: its unbarrous plains were absorbed by the Mongol's power and stopped their invasion on the very edge of Europe ... the resulting enlightenment was rescued by ripped out by Russia."

Fighting the aggression of the Crusaders. The coast from Vistula to the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea was settled with Slavyansky, Baltic (Lithuanian and Latvian) and Finno-Ugrics (Esta, Karelia, etc.) tribes. In the late XII - early XIII centuries. The peoples of the Baltic states the process of decomposition of the primitive and communal system and the folding of a early grade society and statehood. The most intense these processes proceeded at the Lithuanian tribes. Russian lands (Novgorod and Polotsky) have had a significant impact on their Western neighbors who have not yet been developed their own statehood and church institutions (the peoples of the Baltic States were pagans).

The attack on Russian lands was part of the robber doctrine of the German knighthood "Drang Nach Osten" (on the East). In the XII century It is the beginning of the seizure of land owned by the Slavs for Oder and in the Baltic Pomorie. At the same time, an offensive on the lands of the Baltic peoples was conducted. The invasion of the Crusaders on the lands of the Baltic and North-Western Russia was authorized by the Roman dad and the German Emperor Friedrich P. In the Crusade, German, Danish, Norwegian knights and military from other northern countries of Europe also took part in the cross campaign.

Knight's orders. For the conquest of Estaurants and Latvians, the knightly Order of the Maresemenians was created in 1202. The knights wore clothes with the image of a sword and cross. They conducted a conclusive policy under the slogan of Christianization: "Whoever does not want to be baptized, he must die." Back in 1201, the Knights landed at the mouth of the River Western Dvina (Daugava) and founded on the site of the Latvian settlement the city of Riga as a reference point for subordination of the Baltic lands. In 1219, the Danish knights captured a part of the coast of the Baltic states, based on the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of the Estonian settlement.

In 1224, the Crusaders took Yuriev (Tartu). For the conquest of Lithuanian lands (Prussians) and South Russian lands in 1226, the Knights of the Teutonic Order, founded in 1198 in Syria during crusades. Knights - the members of the Order wore White Cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder. In 1234, the swords were defeated from the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and after two more years - from Lithuanians and Zemgallov. It forced the Crusaders to unite their strength. In 1237, the swordsmen united with teutons, forming the separation of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order, named so on the name of the territory populated by the Liv's tribe, which the Crusaders captured.

Nevskaya battle. The onset of the knights was particularly intensified in connection with the weakening of Russia, which expired blood in the fight against Mongolian conquerors.

In July 1240, the Swedish feudal foodals tried to take advantage of Russia. Swedish fleet with an army on board entered the mouth of the Neva. Having risen through the Neva to the sign of the River Izhora, Knight's cavalry landed ashore. Swedes wanted to capture the city of Old Ladoga, and then Novgorod.

Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who was at that time 20 years, with his buddy rapidly rushed to the place of landing. "We are a bit," he turned to his warriors, "but God is not in force, but in the truth." Hidden approaching the camp of the Swedes, Alexander, with his warriors, hit them, and a small militia led by the Novgorod Misha cut off the Swedes through which they could escape themselves to their ships.

Alexandra Yaroslavich for the victory in the Neva Russian people novice Nevsky. The meaning of this victory is that she stopped the Swedish aggression for a long time, retained to the Baltic coast for Rus. (Peter I, emphasizing Russia's right to the Baltic coast, in the new capital at the site of the battle, was founded by Alexander Nevsky Monastery.)

Battle on the Ice. In the summer of the same 1240, the Livonian Order, as well as the Danish and German knights attacked Rus and captured the city of Izborsk. Soon, due to the betrayal of Postridov, the tolders and part of the boyars were taken by Pskov (1241). Gravity and distribution led to the fact that Novgorod did not help his neighbors. And the struggle between boyars and prince in Novgorod itself ended with an expulsion of Alexander Nevsky from the city. Under these conditions, certain detachments of the Crusaders were 30 km from the walls of Novgorod. At the request of Wecha, Alexander Nevsky returned to the city.

Together with his buddy Alexander, a sudden blow liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities. Having received the news that the main forces of the Order go on him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the way to knights, placing his troops on the ice of the Church of the Lake. Russian prince showed himself as an outstanding commander. The chronicler wrote about him: "By winning everywhere, and not we defeat Nicoli." Alexander posted troops under the cover of the steep shore on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy intelligence of his forces and having deprived the opponent's freedom of maneuver. Considering the construction of the Knights of the "Pigs" (in the form of a trapezium with a sharp wedge ahead, which was a heavy cavalry), Alexander Nevsky placed his shelves in the form of a triangle, the edge that escaped to the shore. Before the battle, some Russian warriors were equipped with special hooks to paint the knights with horses.

On April 5, 1242, a battle was held on the ice of the Lake Lake, the name of the Ice Bullings. Knight wedge struck the center of the Russian position and buried to the shore. Flange strikes of Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like ticks, they squeezed the knightly "pig". Knights, not withstanding the blow, fled in a panic. Seven miles drove their Novgorod on ice, which in many places in many places became weak and fell under heavy warriors. The Russians pursued the enemy, "sequels, hacking behind him, as in the air," the chronicler recorded. According to the Novgorod chronicles, "German 400, and 50 taken captive" died in the battle (German chronicles evaluate the number of kits in 25 knights). Captive knights with disgrace were held through the streets of Mr. Great Novgorod.

The value of this victory is that the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened. A response to the Ice Bare was the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic States. However, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, Knights at the end of the XIII century. Separated a significant part of the Baltic lands.

Russian land under the rule of the Golden Horde. In the middle of the XIII century. One of the grandchildren of Genghis Khan Khubulay moved his bet to Beijing, founding the yuan dynasty. The rest of the Mongolian Power nominally obeyed the Great Hanu in Karakorum. One of the sons of Genghis Khana - Chagay (Jagai) received the lands of most of Central Asia, and the grandson of Genghis Kharahu Bolku was owned by the territory of Iran, part of the front and Central Asia and the Transcaucasus. This ulus, highlighted in 1265, named the dynasty is called Hulamidov. Another grandson of Genghis Khan from his older son Juci - Bate founded the state Golden Horde.

Golden Horde. The Golden Horde covered the extensive territory from the Danube to Irtysh (Crimea, the North Caucasus, part of the land of Russia, located in the steppes, the former lands of the Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia). The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (Shed in the Russian language denotes the palace). It was a state that consisted of semi-standing uluses united under the rule of Khan. They managed the Batiy Brothers and Local Aristocracy.

The role of a peculiar aristocratic council was played by the "sofa", where military and financial issues were solved. Once surrounded by the Turkic population, Mongols took over Turkic language. The local Turkic-speaking ethnos assimilated the aliens-Mongols. A new people were formed - Tatars. In the first decades of the existence of the Golden Horde, its religion was paganism.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of his time. At the beginning of the XIV century, she could set a 300 thousandth army. The Golden Horde falls on the board of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). In this era (1312), the state religion of the Golden Horde became Islam. Then, as well as other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period of fragmentation. Already in the XIV century. Separated the Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde, and in the XV century. Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhansky (mid XV century) and Siberian (end XV century) of Khanate.

Russian lands and golden hordes. Russian lands ruined by Mongols were forced to recognize the vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The non-ceased struggle, which the Russian people led to the invaders led Mongol-Tatars to refuse to create their administrative authorities in Russia. Rus has kept its statehood. This contributed to the presence of own administration and church organization in Russia. In addition, the land of Russia was unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, in contrast, for example, from Central Asia, Caspian Sea, Black Sea.

In 1243, the brother of the Great Vladimir Prince Yuri Yaroslav Vsevolodovich killed on the river (1238-1246) was called up in the Khan bet. Yaroslav admitted a vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (diploma) on the Grand Due to the Vladimir and Golden Space ("Piyza"), a kind of pass through the Ordan territory. Following him, other princes stretched in the Horde.

To control the Russian lands, the Institute of Vicers-Baskakov - managers of Mongol-Tatars military units, who followed the activities of Russian princes. Donos Baskakov in the Horde ended inevitably either by challenging the prince in the barn (often he was deprived of a label, and even life), or a punitive campaign in a dismissed land. It is enough to say that only for the last quarter of the XIII century. 14 such campaigns were organized into Russian lands.

Some Russian princes, seeking to get rid of vassal dependence on the horde, became on the path of open armed resistance. However, the power to overthrow the power of the invaders was still not enough. For example, in 1252, the regiments of the Vladimir and Galico-Volyn princes were broken. This was well understood by Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 Great Prince Vladimirsky. He took the course for the restoration and rise of the Russian land economy. The politician Alexander Nevsky was supported by the Russian Church, which saw a greater danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the rigorous ruler of the Golden Horde.

In 1257, Mongol-Tatars took the population census - "Number". Remens were sent to the cities (Muslim merchants), Kona Spump was given to the collection of Dani. Dani size ("output") was very large, only "Tsareva Dan", i.e. Tribute in favor of Khan, which was first collected in kind, and then money was 1300 kg of silver per year. Permanent tribute was complemented by "requests" - one-time charges in favor of Khan. In addition, deductions from shopping duties, taxes for the "feeding" of khansky officials, etc. were included in the Khan tremury. There were 14 types of data in favor of Tatars. Census of the population in the 50s-60s of the XIII century. It was noted by numerous uprisings of Russian people against Baskakov, Khansky ambassadors, collectors of Dani, the correspondencers. In 1262, Dani's assemblers were separated with the residents of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, Ustyug. This led to the fact that the collection of Dani from the end of the XIII century. It was transferred to the hands of Russian princes.

The consequences of the Mongolian conquest and the goldside yoke for Russia. The Mongol invasion and the Goldenopa Nago became one of the reasons for the lagging of Russian lands from the developed countries of Western Europe. Huge damage to the economic, political and cultural development of Russia was inflicted. Tens of thousands of people died in battles or were grieved into slavery. A significant part of the income in the form of Dani went to the Horde.

Invulsioned and accounted for old agricultural centers and once mastered territories. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern fertile soil was called "wild field". Russian cities were massive and destroyed. It was easier, and sometimes many crafts disappeared, which slowed down the creation of small-handed production and ultimately delayed economic development.

Mongolian conquest preserved political fragmentation. It weakened the relationship between different parts of the state. Traditional political and trade relations with other countries were violated. The vector of Russian foreign policy, held along the line "South-North" (the struggle against the nomadic hazard, sustainable relations with Byzantium and through the Baltic with Europe) radically changed its focus on the "West East". The pace of cultural development of Russian lands slowed down.

What you need to know on these topics:

Archaeological, linguistic and written certificates of Slavs.

Tribal unions of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-IX centuries. Territory. Classes. "Way from Varyag in Greeks." Public system. Paganism. Prince and squad. Camping for Byzantium.

Domestic and external factors that prepared the emergence of statehood in the Eastern Slavs.

Socio-economic development. Folding feudal relationships.

Ryurikovich early monarchy. "Norman theory", its political meaning. Organization of management. The internal and foreign policy of the first Kiev princes (Oleg, Igor, Olga, Svyatoslav).

The flourishing of the Kiev Power under Vladimir I and Yaroslav wise. Completion of the union of Eastern Slavs around Kiev. Defense of borders.

Legends on the spread of Christianity in Russia. The adoption of Christianity as a state religion. Russian Church and its role in the life of the Kiev Power. Christianity and paganism.

"Russian truth". Approval of feudal relations. Organization of the dominant class. Prince and Boyar Varya. Feudal-dependent population, its category. Halophry. Peasant communities. City.

The struggle between the sons and the descendants of Yaroslav wise for grand-perjury power. Trends for fragmentation. Lishech's princes congress.

Kievan Rus in the system of international relations of the XI - early XII century. Polovtsaya danger. Princely gravestics. Vladimir Monomakh. The final decay of the Kiev Power at the beginning of the XII century.

Culture of Kievan Rus. Cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs. Folklore. Epics. The origin of Slavic writing. Cyril and Methodius. The beginning of the chronicle. "Tale of the time years." Literature. Education in Kievan Rus. Bristian diplomas. Architecture. Painting (frescoes, mosaic, iconography).

Economic and political causes of feudal fragmentation of Russia.

Feudal land tenure. Development of cities. Princely power and boyars. Political system in various Russian lands and principalities.

The largest political entities in Russia. Rostov- (Vladimiro) -suzdal, Galico-Volyn Principality, Novgorod boyars. Socio-economic and domestic political development of principalities and lands on the eve of the Mongolian invasion.

International situation of Russian lands. Political and cultural ties between Russian lands. Feudal gravestics. Fighting the external danger.

Rise culture in Russian lands in the XII-XIII centuries. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe unity of Russian Earth in the works of culture. "Word about the regiment of Igor".

The formation of the early refortel Mongolian state. Genghis Khan and the union of Mongolian tribes. The conquest of the Mongols of the neighboring peoples, northeastern China, Korea, Central Asia. Invasion in the Transcaucasia and South Russian Steppes. Battle on river Kalka.

Camping Batya.

The invasion of northeastern Russia. The defeat of South and Southwestern Russia. Camping Batya to Central Europe. Fighting Russia for independence and its historical importance.

The aggression of German feudal feudalists in the Baltic States. Livonian Order. The defeat of the Swedish troops on the Neva and the German knights in the Ice Bare. Alexander Nevskiy.

The formation of the Golden Horde. Socio-economic and political system. The management system of conquered lands. The struggle of the Russian people against the Golden Horde. The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Town Iean for the further development of our country.

The inhibitory effect of the Mongol-Tatar conquest for the development of Russian culture. The defeat and destruction of cultural values. The weakening of traditional connections with Byzantium and other Christian countries. Decay crafts and arts. Oral folk creativity as a reflection of the fight against invaders.

• Sahars A. N., Buganov V. I. History of Russia from ancient times until the end of the XVII century.

At the beginning of the XIII century. In the steppes of Central Asia there was a strong Mongolian state, with the formation of which the band of Mongolian conquests began. This entailed the consequences that had worldwide historical importance. Towing all countries of Asia and many countries of Europe, Mongolian conquests left a deep mark in their subsequent history, as well as in the history of the Mongolian people.

Name "Mongols"

By the beginning of the XI century. The largest part of the current Mongolia was already occupied by the Mongolian-speaking tribal associations. They were part of the Mongolia from the territory of Mongolia, and part of the Turkic nomads lived there before the Turkic nomads. Mongolian tribes spoke different adverbs of one language, later called Mongolian, but have not yet had a common name. By the name of the Mighty Tribal Union Tatars, the neighboring peoples called "Tatars" and other Mongolian tribes, only unlike the Tatars actually, otherwise - "White Tatars", called the remaining Mongols with "Black Tatars". The name "Mongols" before the beginning of the XIII century. It has not yet been known, and its origin is still not quite clarified. Officially, this name was accepted only after the creation of a joint Mongolian state in Genghis Khan (1206-1227), when it took to give all Mongolian tribes that folded into a single nationality, the general name. It was not learned immediately and the Mongols themselves. Until the 50s of the XIII century. Persian, Arab, Armenian, Georgian and Russian authors called all the Mongols in the old - Tatars.

Public system of Mongols at the end of the XII - early XIII century.

By the end of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century. Mongols occupied an extensive territory from Baikal and Amur in the East to the Verkhovyev Irtysh and Yenisei in the West, from the Great Wall of the Wall in the south to the borders of Southern Siberia in the north. The largest tribal alliances of the Mongols, who played the most important role in the following events, were Tatars, Taichjuts, ceraims, Nimana and Merkita. Some of the Mongolian tribes ("Forest tribes") lived in the wooded areas of the northern part of the country, while the other, large, part of the tribes and their associations ("steppe tribes") lived in the steppes.

The main types of industrial activities of forest tribes were hunting and fisheries, and steppe - nomadic animal husbandry. In terms of its socio-economic and cultural development, forest Mongols stood much lower than the steppe, being at an earlier stage of decomposition of the primitive-communal system. But over time, they more and more passed to dilution of domestic animals. The increase in the number of herds inevitably led to the fact that the forest Mongols came out from the forests and became nomadic animals.

Steppe Mongols bred a large and small horned cattle as well as horses. Each genus, each tribe had their own, more or less firmly fixed behind them, the areas of the nomads, in the boundaries of which was a change in pastures. Nomads lived in felt yurts, they fed mainly with meat and dairy products. Cattle was the main exchange fund, due to which were purchased from the neighbors who were absent from the Mongols, but the products of agriculture and crafts necessary for them. The Mongols themselves were highlighted for their needs, except for felt, belts and rings, wagons and dishes, sidelles and breaks, axes and saws, wooden cores, weapons, and ave. Mongolov trade was in the hands of Uygur and Muslim merchants, immigrants from East Turkestan and Central Asia.

His writing to the XIII century. Mongols have not yet been. But in Wednesday, Nimanov, the most cultural from the Mongolian tribes, Uigur writing was used. Religion of the main mass of Mongols to the beginning of the XIII century. There was a shamanism. As the main thing, the "Eternal Blue Sky" was worshiped. Mongols also revered the deity of the Earth, of different spirits and ancestors. The noble top of the keraait tribe is still at the beginning of the XI century. Accepted the Christianity of Nestorian's sense. Buddhism and Christianity were also common among Naimanov. Both of these religions spread to Mongolia through Uigurov.

In the past, in the era of the domination of the primitive-communal system, when cattle and pastures were the collective property of the generic community, the Mongols nomaded to everyone, and in the parking lots were usually the rings around the yurt of the head of the genus. Such a camp was called Kuren. But the transformation of the main wealth of nomads - livestock in private property led to an increase in property inequality. Under these conditions, the method of Kochye All Kureno became an obstacle to the further enrichment of the wealthy top of nomadic cattle breeders. Owning extensive herds, they needed a greater pasture territory and in more frequent motals than the poor - the owners of a small amount of livestock. The place of the former way of Koacha has occupied Aile (AIL - a big family).

Mongols still before the XIII century. There was a early refortional relationship. Already in the XII century. In each Mongolian tribe, there was a powerful layer of nomadic nobility - Neuons. The Khans standing at the head of the tribes, from simple tribal leaders became king, expressing and defending the interests of the feudalizing nomadic nobility. Earth, pasture land and after the transition of Stads in private property for a long time was considered the collective property of the tribe. But by the beginning of the XIII century. This main means of production was actually at the disposal of the nobility that was found in the class of feudal. Capturing in his hands the right of disposition of nomads and the distribution of pastures, it was a matter of dependence on itself a lot of direct producers, forcing them to fulfill various kinds of duties and turning them into dependent people - Arats. Already at that time, Mongolian knew the distribution of his herds on grazing Aratam, imposing responsibility for them for the safety of livestock and for the delivery of animal husbandry products. Thus was born by the workflow. The mass of nomads (Harachi - "Cherniy", Harayasun - "Black Bone") actually turned into feudal dependent people.

The largest role in the formation and development of feudalism in Mongolia played Nucheress (Nucker - friend, comrade), which began to develop, apparently, in the X-XI centuries. Nucers were originally armed warriors in the service of Khanov, later became their vassals. Based on the nucers, Neuona strengthened their power and suppressed the resistance of ordinary nomads. For his service, Nucker received a certain remuneration from Khan - Hubi (part, share, share) in the form of a certain number of dependent Arathi families and territories for their Kohana. In nature, Hubi was award, similar to the type with the beneficiation. Slaves occupied a significant place in the life of the Mongolian society. Neuona was often led due to the war, turning into slaves of all captured prisoners. Slaves were used as home servants, Chelyadi, as the "courteous" masters, if they were artisans, as well as on the pasting of livestock. But the decisive role in the social production of slaves did not play. The main direct manufacturer was Arat, who was leading his petty cattle farm.

The external forms of the primitive-communal system remained for a long time, as well as the division of tribes and childbirth remained. Tribal militia was built for a fight by childbirth, having at the head of their hereditary noons. The woman in the family and the kind used considerable freedom and well-known rights. Marriages inside the genus were strictly prohibited. Wide dissemination was a wock of brides.

Mongolian state education background

End of the XII century. There was a period of acute struggle inside the birth and tribes, as well as between the tribal associations, headed by aware. At the heart of this struggle, the interests of the intensive and rejected families who had extensive herds, a large number of slaves and feudal dependent people lay. Persian historian began the XIV century. Rashid-Ad-Dean, speaking about this time, notes that the Mongolian tribes used to "never had a powerful despot-sovereign, which would be a ruler of all tribes: each tribe had some sovereign and prince and most of the time they were each A friend was fought, begged, intermitted and competed, robbed each other. "

Combining the tribes of Nimanov, Keraaitov, Taichzhutov and others, incessantly attacked each other with the aim of capturing pastures and military prey: livestock, slaves and other wealth. As a result of the wars between the associations of the tribe, the defeated tribe fell into dependence on the winning tribe, and to know the defeated tribe feared to the position of Han's vassals and know the victorious tribe. In the process of a long struggle for the predominance, there were relatively large associations of tribes, or the uluses, at the head of which were khana, nominated by numerous nuger squads. Such associations of the tribes committed attacks not only on their neighbors inside Mongolia, but also on neighboring peoples, mainly to China, penetrating into its border areas. At the beginning of the XIII century. Divorced to know rallied around the leader of the Steppe Mongols, the Tempto, who received the name of Genghis Khan.

The formation of the Mongolian state. Genghis Han

Temacign was born, apparently, in 1155 his father, Esugay Baatur ( Mongolian Baatur, Turkic Bahadur (hence the Russian Bogatyr) is one of the titles of Mongolian nobility.) It was from the genus Borghigin tribe of Taichzhiutov and was rich Neuon. With his death in 1164 crumbled and created by the Ulus in the valley of the River Ong. Various tribal groups, which were part of the ulus, left the family of the deceased Batura. Nuckers diverged.

During a number of years, the family of Esugea wandered, Vohach a miserable existence. In the end, Techova managed to find support for Wang Khan, heads of cerapetes. By the auspices of Wang Khan Techucin began to gradually accumulate forces. Nuckers began to finish it. Techucin made a number of successful attacks on the neighbors and, increasing his wealth, put them dependent on themselves. Talking about a crushing strike, which Techucin inflicted in 1201 to the militia of the leader of the steppe Mongols of Jamugi, the Mongolian chronicle of the first half of the XIII century. - "The innermost legend" transmits a curious episode drawing class face Temochka. When Jamugi's militia was scattered, five Arata grabbed him, tied up and issued Techotchin, hoping to earn the victor's mercy. Tehuchin said "Mindly to leave in the living Aratah, raised his hand on his natural khan?" And ordered to execute them together with the families in front of Jamugi. Only after that, Jamuga himself was executed.

As a result of Wars Ulus Techuchin continued to expand, becoming at least equal to the strength of Van Khan's ulus. Soon between them there was a rivalry, which turned into open hostility. There was a battle that brought the victory Techovkin. In the fall of 1202, as a result of the bloody battle between the militia, Techuchin and Danian Khan Namaensky was defeated and Danyan's army, and he himself was killed. A victory over Danyan Khan made Techurus the only candidate for power in all Mongolia. In 1206, Huhural (or Khuraldan - Congress, the congress) took place on the banks of the Oneon River, the leaders of all tribal groups of Mongolia. Huhural proclaimed Techuchu, Great Khan Mongolia, giving him the name of Genghis Khan ( The meaning of this name or title is still not clarified.). Great Khan has also become called Kaan since then. Until that time, Mongols were titled so the Chinese emperor. So the process of education of the Mongolian state ended.

State Stroy of Mongolia at the beginning of the XIII century.

Becoming Great Khan, Genghis-Khan continued to strengthen the order corresponding to the interests of the nobility that needed to strengthen its power over the mass of the Arata and in successful gaining wars for further expanding the sphere of feudal exploitation and direct robbery of other people of the Tumen (Darkness), "Thousands", " Hundreds "and" dozens "were followed not only by military units, but also by administrative units, i.e., the associations of Ailov, mighty, respectively, respectively, 10,000, 1000, 100 and 10 warriors in the militia (these figures were conditional and approximate). On the condition of military service, the Great Hanu, each group of Ailov, was provided to hold the dozen, hundredth and thousands of Neuons and Neuons of the Tumen (Tonnikam). The Tumen was thus the largest feudal possession, which included smaller possessions - "thousands", "hundreds" and "dozens" (i.e. branches and knees of individual Mongolian tribes). Thousands, hundredths and dozen Neuons moved forward from nobility of these tribes, knees and childbirth.

The right to dispose of pasture lands and swing and power over the Arats fully belonged to the total and other Neuons. Their ranks and their "thousands", "hundreds" and "dozens" moved by inheritance to their descendants, but they could have been selected by their great Khan for the provinciality or non-irradiation. Nyuona gave their herds on the basis of the exhaust rent for grazing Aratam. Arata also carried military service in the militia of their noon. Genghis-Khan, under the fear of death, forbade Arata to go from one ten to another, from one hundred to another, etc. In fact, this meant attaching Arats to their gentlemen and nomads. Attaching the aracy was dodged the strength of the law. It is clearly stated in the meeting of the laws of Genghis-Khan - "Great Yasa". Jasa ("Law") is imbued with the spirit of protecting the interests of the nomadic nobility and its Supreme Representative - the Great Khan, this is a real fastener charter, only externally covered by patriarchal customs. Such was the state of Chingis-Khan, in which the process of folding the Mongolian nationality took place.

Mongolian conquest

With the formation of the Mongolian state, a band of Mongolian conquests began. The conquerors saw on their lands many nations - Daman and Zhurzheni, Tanguts and Chinese, Koreans and Tibetans, Tajiks and Khorezmians, Turks and Persians, Indians and Peoples of Transcaucasia, Russians and Poles, Hungarians, Croats, etc. Later, already in the successors of Genghis Khan, The ships of the conquerors approached the shores of Japan, Java and Sumatra. The cultural countries of the Middle Ages drove a destructive tornado.

What caused Mongolian conquests? The source of income of Khanov, Neuonov and Nucers was not only the feudal operation of the Arats, but also to no less robbing wars with neighboring uluses and tribes. When war inside Mongolia ceased, it became on the path of external conquering wars. In the interests of Khanghis Khan and kept continuous wars. Iron discipline, organization and exceptional mobility of equestrian Mongolian militia, which were equipped with the military equipment of the Chinese and other cultural peoples, were given by Genghis-Khan's troops a significant advantage compared to sedentary peoples' feudal militia. But it did not play a major role. The relative weakness of states that became the object of conquests of the Mongolian nobility had the crucial importance. This weakness was caused by feudal fragmentation in many countries, the lack of unity in them, and in some cases - the fear of rulers to arm the masses.

The robbing invasions of nomads on various Agricultural countries of Asia were usually devastating. The invasion of the same Mongolian troops was characterized, moreover, entered by Genghis Khan and its commander by the receptions of organized devastation of cultural lands, mass extermination of people capable of resistance to the population, terror and intimidation of civilians.

In the siege of the cities, the population was given only in the event of immediate delivery. If the city has resisted, then after his occupation, Genghis Khan, first of all, kicked out all the inhabitants in the field, so that the conquerors were more convenient to plunder the city and take out everything valuable. Then all the warriors were killed, and artisans with families, as well as young women and girls, carried out into slavery. Healthy young men were taken into travels and for siege work.

It often happened that the commander of Genghis-Khan would have extended not only the inhabitants of cities, but also the population of surrounding rural areas. This was done in cases where the conquerors for some reason feared the possibilities of the uprising in this area. If there were not enough warriors for this massacre, it was forced to participate the slaves who followed the army. After the "universal massacre" in the city of Merve (Central Asia), taken by Mongols in 1221, the counting of the killed last 13 days.

This terrorist system was used only at the Genghis Khan and its closest successors. Wars of Mongols of the second half of the XIII and XIV century. No longer differed from ordinary feudal wars, which were the Asian states. But as a result of the use of similar methods for several decades Yanjing and Bukhara, Termez and Merv, Urgench and Herat, Rei and Ani, Baghdad and Kiev, the largest foci of civilization - lay in ruins. The flowering gardens of Khorezma and Horasan disappeared. With such a diligence and with such labor created by the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, Iraq and other countries, the irrigation system was destroyed. Hooves of numerous horses pulled the cultivated fields of these countries. Answer sometime densely populated and cultural areas. "There was no time from the creation of the world of catastrophe more terrible for humanity and there will be nothing like that before the condation of the ages and to the terrible court," this time described this time, one of the contemporaries - Arabic historian Ibn Al-Asira.

Craftsmen addressed to slavery, first led to Mongolia, and later began to operate on the spot, in large workshops who belonged to Khanu, Tsarevicham or knew, selecting all their products from these artisans and issuing a meager naoc. Such workshops were created in all conquered countries. The work of slaves was also applied in cattle farms for nobility.

Wars of Genghis-Khan and Chingisida brought enormous wealth to know, but they did not enriched Mongolia and the Mongolian people. On the contrary, as a result of these wars, Mongolia lost a lot of blooming young people and was buried. A significant part of the Mongolian nobility with the sudentities of the Arats was evicted beyond the limits of Mongolia into conquered countries. In 1271, even the residence of the Great Khan was transferred to Northern China. In conquered countries, representatives of the Mongolian nomadic nobility took possession of land treated with saddled peasants. Everywhere approved the system of heredity of military ranks. Continuing to waders with the priests subject to her and not living in their estates, Mongolian knew from the rural population to rent products. The ardent peasants were subjected to much more cruel exploitation than nomads-Arata, which, since they constituted the main contingent of ordinary warriors in feudal militia, it was dangerous to bring to ruin.

Conquest of North China and other states

In 1207, Genghis Khan sent his eldest son Juci to conquering tribes who lived to the north of the Selenga River and in the Valley of the Yenisei. There is reason to believe that the main goal of this campaign was the seizure of areas rich in ferrous fisheries, necessary conquerors for weapons. Juci performed a conquest plan scheduled to Genghis Khan. In the same 1207, the conquerors were encountered with the TANGUT state of Si-Xia (in the current province of Gansu), the ruler of which was obliged to pay tribute to Genghis Khan. In 1209 Genghis Khan obeyed the country of Uigur in East Turkestan. However, the main attention of Genghis Khan was at this time directed towards China. In 1211, against Chjugzhenia, who, then, the northern part of China (by the state of Jin), were the main Mongolian forces led by Genghis Khan.

Zhurzhenya, being the conquerors themselves, alien Chinese people and hated them, could not resist the Mongols. By 1215, a significant part of the Jin state was crossed into the hands of Mongols. The conquerors occupied, plundered and burned its capital - the Chinese city of Yanjing (Sovr. Beijing). Appointing one of his military leaders - Mukhuli ruler taken from Chuzhzheny regions of China, Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia with huge prey. In the course of this war, Genghis Khan got acquainted with Chinese heavy trumpeted and cenchers. Understanding the importance of these guns for further conquests, he organized their production, using for this deployed from China and turned into slavery masters.

Conquest of Central Asia and Si-Xia State

Having finished the war in Northern China, Chingis-Khan sent his detachments to the West - towards Khorezm, the largest state of Central Asia. Defeating the previously ephemeral state of Kuchluk Nimansky, Danyan-Khan's nephew (1218 g), Chingis-Khan's troops began to conquer Central Asia (in 1219 g). In 1220, the conquerors were captured by Bukharoy and Samarkand Khorezm State Palo. Khorezmysh Muhammed fled to Iran and disappeared on the island of the Caspian Sea, where he soon died. Mongolian detachments, pursuing his son from Jelal Ad-Din, penetrated into the North-Western India, but they came across a strong resistance here, who stopped their promotion into the depths of India. In 1221, the conquest of Central Asia - ruined and devastated, with the converteds to the ruins and the deserts of threes and oases - was completed.

At the same time, one of the groups of Mongolian troops, leaving the commanders Hebe (Jebe) and Preteta, having encouraged from the South of the Caspian Sea, invaded Georgia and Azerbaijan, robbery and destroying everything in its path. Then hescher and Subetay penetrated the North Caucasus, from where they moved to South Russian Steppes. First of Alanov (Ossetian), and then Kypchakov (Polovtsy), who had nagged in these steppes, Mongolian conquerors, entered the limits of the Crimea, where Sudak's city was captured. In 1223, the battle between Mongolian conquerors and the militia of Russian princes occurred on the river Kalka. The lack of unity between the latter, as well as the treason of Poland participating in this battle appeared the cause of the defeat of the Russian troops. However, Mongolian troops, which suffered a big damage killed and wounded, were not able to continue going to the north and moved to the east, against the Bulgarians who lived on the Volga. Without reaching and there, they turned back. After that, together with the sons of Chagatasm, Ugrian and Toluham, Genghis Khan from Central Asia moved on the way back, in Mongolia, where he arrived in the fall of 1225 in a year, in 1226, Genghis Han made their last campaign, this time with The goal is to finally destroy Tangutscore the SI-XI state. During the year, this goal was achieved. In 1227, Si-Xia ceased to exist, and the population remained alive was turned into slaves. In the same year, returning from this campaign, Genghis Khan died. In 1229, Huhural was held, which came the sons of Genghis-Khan, his closest relatives and associates. Great Khan was elected his third son - Ughedyi, even earlier on this post of Genghis Khan. Other sons on the will of Genghis-Khan were allocated special uluses. At the same time, Huhural outlined the plan of new conquests, the central place in which he occupied the subordination of the part of the North China's territory remaining under the rule of the territory.

In 1231, the Mongolian troops led by Ugadem and Tolulyu again invaded North China. Mongols approached the city of Sviass (Sovr. Kaifyn), where Zhhhhryzhzhy soviet sovar moved after the loss of Yanjin. The siege of the city of Svias was for the Mongols unsuccessful. The war was delayed. Mongol rulers began to look for allies. They appealed to the Emperor of the South Soon Dynasty, which mastered in South China, with a proposal to take part in the war against Chjugzhenia, promising for it to give him the province of Henan. The Yuzhnosuna Emperor went to this proposal, counting with the help of Mongolian Khan to defeat his old enemies - Zhurzhenia. Sunnogo troops attacked Chjugzhenia from the south, the Mongols acted from the North-West.

The city of Sviagne was captured by Mongolian troops. After that, the reference points of Zhurzhenia one after another moved into the hands of conquerors. In 1234, the city of Tingzhou was taken. The Zhugzhensky sovereign committed suicide. The state of Zhugzheny ceased to exist. The whole of its territory was in the hands of conquerors, who at the same time deceived the Sun emperor, without giving him the promise of Henan's promise.

The invasion of Russia and the countries of the West

In 1236, a new conquest movement to the West began, where a numerous army was sent, which consisted not only from the Mongolian troops, but also from the troops of the submissive passwords. At the head of this army, Wat was put, the son of Juci. Conquering Kypchakov and Volzhsky Bulgarians, the conquerors in the winter of 1237 moved against Russia. In the winter campaign of 1237/38, they captured and plundered Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow and Vladimir. In the battle on the City River, the main forces of Russian princes were defeated.

Mongolian troops, who endured large losses in battles against Russian principalities, needed a breather. This explains the break in their hostilities, which lasted about one and a half years. In the winter of 1239, the war resumed. The conquerors invaded South Russian lands, crossed through the Dnieper, took and plundered Kiev. In 1241, the Mongol Forces were divided into two groups. One, under the command of Batu and Preteta, headed in Hungary, another invaded Poland. Emptying Poland and Silesia, Mongols in the battle near the lignites broke the militia of Polish and German princes. And although the Mongolian army invaded Hungary and reached almost to Venice, the losses incurred so weakened the Mongols that their further offensive was impossible and they turned back.

In 1241, Ugadei died. After a five-year struggle for the Khan Throne in 1246, Huhural gathered, who chose the great Khan Mongolia of the son of Ugrian - GUUKA. But GUUK reigned for a long time, he died in 1248 a new struggle for the Khanyan throne, who launched until 1251, began, when the next hural was tired to the throne of the son of Toluha - Munke.

Conquest in Western Asia and China

With the great Khan, Munke-Kaan Mongolian conquests continued both in the West and in the East. The army of conquerors, headed by Brother Munke - Hulag, invaded Iran and from there passed in two-range. In 1258, they took Baghdad, putting an end to the existence of the Khaliphat Abbasid. Further promotion of Mongols in this direction was stopped by the Egyptian troops who had a defeat (1260). In the east, Mongols led by another brother Munke - Hubilam invaded the Chinese province of Sichuan and penetrated on south, in Dali. From here, squads for the conquest of Tibet and Indo-China were directed. At the same time, Khubilay began the war for mastering the province of Hubei.

By this time, the territory of the Mongolian power reached its greatest size. The main part of it was the actual Mongolia, Manchuria and North China. Here were two capitals - Karakorum in Orhon and Caipin in the province of Chahar. It was the Native Yurt ( Yurt - in this meaning the same thing that ulus is "lot".) (Domain) Great Chanov. The areas of Altai with the center in Tarbagatai were the ulus of the descendants of the UGDEY. The ulus descendants of the Chagata included the whole of Central Asia to the east of AMU-Darya, Semirchye, the current Xinjiang and the Areas of Tien Shan. In 1308-1311. Ulus Ugheda merged with this ulus. The ulus of the Senior Son of Genghis-Khan, Juchi, lay to the west of Irtysh and included the Volga region, the North Caucasus, Crimea, Khorezm, Low Gray Darya and Irtysh Ulus Juchi (Kypchak Khanate) in Russian chronicles were called the Golden Horde, and this name is firmly Approved for him in the literature. The western part of Central Asia (west of AMU-Darya), Iran, Iraq and Transcaucasia (from 1256) amounted to Ulus Hulagu, the son of Toluha, often referred to as the state of Ilkhanov, or Hulagaidov.

Battle under lignic. Miniature from the "Life of Jadwig Silesian". 1353

Start of the collapse of the Mongolian Power

In 1259, the Great Khan Munke died. His death temporarily interrupted Hubila's conquest campaign in the South Soon Empire. Khubilai neglected the Rule "Yausi" of Genghis-Khan, according to which the Great Khan was to be elected certainly on hurals with the obligatory participation of all members of the reigning home. Khubilai gathered in 1260 in Kaipin his approximations, which proclaimed him great Khan. At the same time, another part of the Mongolian nobility gathered in Karakorum and built a throne of the younger brother Khubila - Arigbugu. In Mongolia, there were two great khan. A armed struggle ended between Arigbugi defeat after 4 years. Great Khan Mongolia got a hubilay-kaap. But by this time the Mongolian Power has already become different. Western uluses disappeared from it. The state of Ilkhanov and the Golden Horde from the time of Hubila's acceleration became actually independent states. Do not intervene into the affairs of the Great Khan, they did not allow him to interfere in their business. When, later, the Khana of the three Western uluses adopted Islam (at the turn of the XIII and XIV centuries), they even nominally ceased to recognize the power of the Great Khan, which became "wrong" for them.

In the XIV century The main mass of the Mongols, expeded to the Western uluses, was mixed with old-minded, cripples, cepies and Azerbaijanis and began to speak in the languages \u200b\u200bof the Turkic system; Only in Kaitag, on the West Bank of the Caspian Sea, Mongolian has been preserved until the XVII century, and in Afghanistan - until the XIX century. The term "Tatars", which originally belonged to the Mongols, began to mean Turkic-speaking nomads of the Golden Horde. That is why from the 60s of the XIII century. The history of Ulus Hulagueidov, Jucid and Chagataidov ceases to be the history of the Mongolian Power. The paths of the historical development of these uluses were separated, and the history of each of them was particularly.

Conquest of the southern part of China and the education of the Yuan Empire

Khubilai reconciled with the fact that Western uluses were actually disappeared from Mongolia, and did not even try to return them to her power. He sent all his attention to the final conquest of China. The implementation of the plans of Kubila was facilitated by the intersubirement, framed by the South Soon Empire. In 1271, Khubilay suffered his capital from Mongolia to Yanjing. Despite the stubborn resistance of the masses of southern China and many military units led by the warlords devoted to their country, Mongolian conquerors were gradually approaching the seaside turns of South China. By 1276, the conquest of the South Sun Empire of Mongols was completed. All China was in the hands of Mongolian feudalists. Even before that, the power of Mongols recognized the Korean state of the Core. The last major military enterprise of Mongolian conquerors was an attempt to subordinate Japan. In 1281, Hubilai sent a huge fleet to Japan, consisting of several thousand courts. However, the Mongols could not conquer Japan. Their fleet was caught in Typhoon, to escape from which the few ships managed. Did not bring the Mongola success and their attempts to strengthen in Indo-China.

As a result of the conquests, China, Mongolia and Manchuria entered the composition of the Mongolian Power. Political domination in this power belonged to Mongolian feudalists led by the grandson of Genghis-Khan Grand Khan Khubilam, who at the same time became the emperor of China. He and his descendants were over a century almost a century over China and the Chinese people (until 1368). Hubilai gave his dynasty the name of the yuan, which became the designation not only the Chinese possessions of the Mongols, but also the entire empire of Mongolian feudal. The name it was Chinese. In the ancient book of China, "I-Jing", interpreting the questions of being, says: "Veliko began Qian - the source of all things", "a very beginning of a kun - the life of all things!". The concept of "beginning" in these two sayings was transferred to the word "yuan", and this word became the name of the Mongol Empire. The capital of the Empire became G. Yanjing - the former capital of the Zhurzhensky state, who received the name of Dad (the "Great City"). His Mongolian name is Hanbalyk.

Mongol Empire and Pate

Mongolian conquests attracted the close attention of the papacy, attempted to use Mongolian khans in order to implement their plans in Eastern Europe and in the anterior Asia. The first who made an attempt to establish a connection with Mongolian Khan was the Roman dad of Innocent IV. He sent to the great Hanu monk of the Franciscan Order Giovanni Outline of Carpini, who in 1245 he got to Batu-Khan's bet, and from there headed to Karakorum, where he arrived in 1246. The Carpini plan received an audience from the Great Khan Goyuk, who was awarded the message of Pope . Nothing other than the arrogant response, the papal ambassador did not achieve.

In 1253, the French king Louis IX, closely connected with the Church, sent Wilhelm Rubruk to Mongols - Monk Franciscan Order. The Seaner of the French king, who had just made a crusade (seventh) against Egypt, ended with the full defeat of the French crusader army, was to find out about the possibility of the Union of the "Christian" king with Mongolian Khans against Egyptian sultans. Rubruk from Constantinople drove into Sudak, and from there through the Golden Horde and Central Asia headed in Karakorum, where he arrived in 1254. Munke, who was then great Khan, received the ambassador of the French king, but demanded from the last to submit his power. In 1255, Rubruk returned to Europe.

The next attempt to establish a connection with the Mongols was taken by Pope Bonifaceim VIII, who sent to them the monk Giovanni Monte Corvino. In 1294, Corvino arrived in Yanjing. Hubilai allowed him to live in the capital and build a Catholic church there. Corvino translated the New Testament to Mongolian and remained in China until the end of his life. Mongols, in turn, made attempts to establish relationships with papacy. The most famous of these attempts was the Embassy of the Rabbaw Sauma, Nestorian monk, by the origin of Uygig, directed by Ilhan Arguine to the Roman dad. The purpose of the embassy was the preparation of the Union with the sovereigns of Western Christian countries for joint actions in Syria and Palestine against Egypt, the resistance of which was stopped by the conquest movement of the Mongols. Sauma visited not only in Rome, but also in Genoa, as well as in France (1287-1288). Results The Sauma Embassy did not bring, but the description of this journey served in the East the source of information about the countries and peoples of the distant West.

Mongolian army. Miniature from the "Chronicles Collection" Rashid-ad-Dina. 1301-1314.

Mongol Empire in the 40s and 1960s of the XIII century.

With Genghis-Khan, the Mongolian State Management Office was very simple. He had a number of Uygur scribes who served his personal correspondence. In the future, a number of officials from China were transferred to the Mongolian feudal service to the Mongolians, mainly from the kidani and Zhurzhenia, who brought with them many skills of the Chinese administration.

Genghis Khan bequeathed his successors to "Yasu" -dent instructions, which they had to be guided by the Empire Management Affairs. According to these instructions, finance management and military and civil affairs institutions lay on four dignitaries. Under the successor of Genghis-Khan Ugheda, the empire was first made a census of the population, as well as the norms of taxation and the postal connection was organized. Up to the right of the right, the science language of the official correspondence in the empire served as Uigur, who had his writing. Since at that time began to move to the Mongolian language, which then did not yet had his writtenness, Khubilay instructed one of his approximate, Tibettsu Pagba, Buddhist monk, to develop a Mongolian writing based on the Tibetan alphabet. Pagba fulfilled this order, and in 1269 a decree was issued on the transition to Mongolian writing.

Genghis Khan and his successors were equally patronically relate to all religions and to ministers of religious cults. But Hubilay prefers one of the Buddhist sensors, the so-called "red-haired" sect of Sakya, which established in Tibet in the XI century. The adviser to Hubila on the affairs of religion was Pagna, the head of the "red-haired" sect.

Despite the gigantic destruction caused by the conquest wars of Mongolian feudalists, trade relations of countries and peoples who have come to the empire, still not stopped. Trade development has also contributed to the Mongols and Postal Communications Device. The conquerors needed good roads and in the established work of mail for reasons mainly by the military-strategic. But these roads were widely used and merchants. Along with the new ways, vintage caravan paths were supported. One of them was made of Central Asia along the northern slopes of Tien Shan in Mongolia, in Karakorum, and from there - in Yanjing. The other was held from Southern Siberia along the northern slopes of Sayan to Karakorum and Yanjing.

Wholesale caravan trade between countries of the front and Central Asia and China was in the hands of the Muslim merchants, mainly Persians and Tajiks. Members of these powerful companies were called Urta. They sent caravans with hundreds, even thousands of people and fabric animals. Already Genghis-Khan patronized this trade, and then His politics continued to Ughedei and his successors - Great Khans, as well as Hans Ulusny. Not content with income from duties, khans and large feudalists themselves invested funds to trade, and the Urtaki gave them their share of income in goods. Hubilai and his heirs took active measures to increase the river and maritime transport in China, being interested in this in connection with the growing food needs, which was delivered to them from the South and Central China. With Hubila, the reconstruction of the system of the Great Chinese Channel was launched. However, trade in the Mongolian Empire was predominantly transit, and therefore it has little influenced the development of the productive forces of those countries through which trading paths passed, and, in particular, to the development of productive forces in Mongolia.

Almost without releasing metal money, Hubilai sought to translate all the money circulation on paper signs. Limiting the printing and release of paper money, he achieved the transformation of this money into a fairly stable currency. After the actual decay of the Mongolian Empire, the trade in front and Central Asia with China has been very reduced. But in the Chinese part of the Empire, overseas trade continued to develop as before. She walked along the old trading path: from the Persian Gulf along the coast of Industan to the eastern coast of Indo-China, and from there to the ports of Southeast China. The trade in the Arab, Persian and Indian merchants. Their ships filled the harbor of Canton, Yangzhou, Hangzhou and Quan-Zhou. Marine trade was carried out with the countries of the Malay Peninsula, as well as with Jawa and Sumature. The orbit of this trade included the Philippines. Of course, the successful development of trade in the Yuan Empire can not be attributed to the activities of Mongolian Khanov. The Mongolian rulers of China were only interested in receiving trade duties in their favor.

Such was the Mongol Empire. It included many tribes and nationalities, deeply distinguished each other by the level of socio-economic development. With special languages, a special culture, all of them were included in the Mongolian power of forcibly. Such an artificial association could not be durable. The enslaved peoples led the heroic liberation struggle against the conquerors and ultimately returned their independence. The Unified Mongolian Empire existed only 4 decades (until 1260), after which it broke into actually independent uluses.

Mongolia after the fall of the Mongolian Hanov's power in China

During the reign of ChingiSides (Yuan dynasty), in China, Mongolia became only governorship for the heir to the throne. But after the expulsion of Mongolian Khan from China and the approval of the Minsk Empire (1368), Kaan Togon-Timur fled to Mongolia with his troops. As a result of the conquest wars of the XIII-XIV centuries. Mongolia has lost a significant part of the population who has escaped from homeland and dissolved among other peoples. Captured in the form of military extraction of values \u200b\u200benriched only to nomadic feudalists, which did not affect the growth of productive forces in the country. After the restoration of the Chinese state, the economy of Mongolia was in a very serious position. Mongolia was sliced \u200b\u200bfrom the Chinese market - the only market where the Mongols could sell products of their cattle-producing nomadic economy and where they could acquire the products of agriculture and crafts they need.

The basis of the economy of Mongolia in the XIV-XV centuries. There remained nomadic extensive cattle breeding. Arata was nomaded by small groups of Ailov, moving from place to place in search of pastures for livestock within a certain area, which was the possession of a feud for which the serfs were these arats. Feudals handed out their cattle for grazing Aratam or used them in their farms as shepherds, milkers, streaming. Along with the Underworld Renta, I also existed product: Arat gave to his owner every year a few heads of livestock, a certain amount of milk, felt, etc.

In the XIV-XV centuries. In Mongolia, the process of further development of the feudal hierarchy took place. He headed Khan from Chingisids, therefore, he was stood by Tsarevichi Chingisida (Thai), below them - medium and small feudal feudals. The hereditary possessions of large faeodals are now called uluses, or tammes, regardless of the number of feudal militia exhibited by them. Each ulus disintegrates, that is, large groups of Ailov, combined by the fact that they occupied the overall territory under their nomads and had a hereditary ordinal at the head of his hereditary dominator, which was Vassal of the ruler of Ulus. Since the individual areas of Mongolia were economically independent of each other, in the second half of the XIV and in the XV century. Large uluses began to strive for political independence. The authority and real power of Mongolian Khan more and more fell. Various feudal clicks were erected on the throne and overthrew that one, then another Khan, however, always from chingisides. At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. Long-term civil wars of Eastern and Western Mongolia began. In 1434, after the victory of the Oratov tribe (from Western Mongolia) over the eastern Mongols (Halha-Mongola), Dysun-Khan Ohiratsky turned out to be the ruler of all Mongolia. But soon new interdets began, and the country again broke up into a number of actually almost independent possessions (1455).

In the XV century The history of Mongolia was characterized, on the one hand, as it was said, who was inflamed feudal interdudes, on the other hand, frequent wars with the Minsk Empire, and then the Mongolian feudal foams attacked China's border areas, then the Chinese troops invaded Mongolia. In 1449, the feudal of Essen Tyshin, in fact Rule Mongolia on behalf of Daisun Khan, defeated the forces of the Minsk Empire, taking the very emperor of Insun. Mongolian feudals in the XV century. All these wars with China were no longer the sake of conquering territories, as before, and mainly in order to achieve from the Minsk Empire, the opening of markets for exchanges in the border areas of China and, since this trade was under the control of the state, establishing higher prices for Horse and cattle driven by Mongolian feudals. The Essen Tisin mentioned above during the negotiations with representatives of the Minsk Empire reproached them: "Why did you reduce the prices of horses and often released a non-rejected fucking school?". The Chinese representatives were justified by the fact that the prices of horses declined because the Mongols came from every year more and more. The markets along the border of the Mongols delivered horses, cattle, fur, horse hair, and Chinese merchants - cotton and silk fabrics, cooking boilers and other objects of economic durable, grain, etc.

Internal interdiscipders and external wars ruined the Araths, which pushed the Arata to fight their oppressors. The class struggle that happened in Mongolia testifies, for example, the next fact: one of the Mongolian feudalists in the 40s of the XV century. I complained to the Minsk Emperor, that 1500 Arathi families went to China from him. The Minsk Emperor returned them back to "legal regulators."