Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 21st century. Eastern Europe in the late XX - early XXI centuries. years: wave of neoconservatism

Further, the interaction of peoples, as an integral factor, has increased many times over. A new world order based on the unity of rights and duties is being formed. In doing so, attention should be paid to the following.

The development of science, engineering and technology has reached a new level.
There has been a transition of production to a new type, the socio-political results of which are the property of not only one country.
Global economic ties deepened.
Global ties arose that covered the main spheres of life of peoples and states.

All this led to the renewal of the picture of the Society.

Globalization

The modern world gives the impression of a pluralistic one, which sharply distinguishes it from the world order of the Cold War period. In the modern multipolar world, there are several main centers of international politics: Europe, China, the Asia-Pacific Region (APR), South Asia (India), Latin America (Brazil) and the USA.

Western Europe

After many years of Europe being in the shadow of the United States, its powerful rise began. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. EU countries, with a population of approximately 350 million people, produce goods and services worth just over $5.5 trillion a year, that is, more than in the United States (just under $5.5 trillion, 270 million people). These achievements became the basis for the revival of Europe as a special political and spiritual force, the formation of a new European community. This gave the Europeans a reason to reconsider their positions in relation to the United States: to move from relations of the “younger brother-big brother” type to an equal partnership.

Eastern Europe

Russia

In addition to Europe, the Asia-Pacific region has a huge impact on the fate of the modern world. The dynamically developing Asia-Pacific covers a triangle from the Russian Far East and Korea in the northeast to Australia in the south and Pakistan in the west. Approximately half of humanity lives in this triangle and there are such dynamic countries as Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore.

If in 1960 the total GNP of the countries of this region reached 7.8% of the world GNP, then by 1982 it had doubled, and by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to about 20% of the world gross national product (that is, it became approximately equal to the share of the EU or the USA). The Asia-Pacific region has become one of the main centers of world economic power, which raises the question of expanding its political influence. The rise in Southeast Asia was largely associated with the policy of protectionism and the protection of the national economy.

China

In the Asia-Pacific region, the incredibly dynamic growth of China draws attention: in fact, the GNP of the so-called “Greater China”, which includes China proper, Taiwan, and Singapore, exceeds Japan and is practically approaching the GNP of the United States.

The influence of the Chinese is not limited to "Greater China" - it partly extends to the countries of the Chinese diaspora in Asia; in the countries of Southeast Asia, they constitute the most dynamic element. For example, by the end of the 20th century The Chinese made up 1% of the population of the Philippines, but controlled 35% of the sales of local firms. In Indonesia, the Chinese accounted for 2-3% of the total population, but about 70% of local private capital was concentrated in their hands. The entire East Asian economy outside of Japan and Korea is, in fact, the Chinese economy. An agreement between the PRC and the countries of Southeast Asia on the creation of a common economic zone has recently entered into force.

Near East

In Latin America, liberal economic policy in the 1980s-1990s. led to economic growth. At the same time, the use of harsh liberal recipes for modernization in the future, which did not provide for sufficient social guarantees during market reforms, increased social instability, contributed to relative stagnation and an increase in the external debt of Latin American countries.

It is precisely the reaction to this stagnation that explains the fact that in Venezuela in 1999 the “Bolivarians” headed by Colonel Hugo Chavez won the elections. In the same year, a constitution was adopted in a referendum, guaranteeing the population a large number of social rights, including the right to work and rest, free education and medical care. Since January 2000, the country has acquired a new name - the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Along with the traditional branches of power, two more are formed here - electoral and civil. Hugo Chavez, using the support of a significant part of the population, chose a strict anti-American course.

The countries of Eastern Europe were captured by Germany and then liberated by the troops of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition. Some of these countries (Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania) initially fought on the side of Hitler. After the end of the war, the countries of Eastern Europe fell under the influence of the USSR.

Events

1940s- in the countries of Eastern Europe there was a wave of coups, which brought the communists to power; during these years, new states appear on the map of Europe.

1945- the formation of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, led by the communist government of Josip Broz Tito. Yugoslavia included Serbia (as part of Serbia - the Albanian autonomies of Kosovo and Metohija, Vojvodina), Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia.

The first cracks in the united socialist camp appeared in 1948 when the Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito, who wanted to conduct his policy largely without coordination with Moscow, once again made a self-willed step, which served to aggravate Soviet-Yugoslav relations and break them (see Fig. 2). Before 1955of the year Yugoslavia fell out of a single system, and did not return there entirely. In this country, a peculiar model of socialism arose - Titoism based on the authority of the country's leader Tito. Under him, Yugoslavia turned into a country with a developed economy (in 1950-1970, production rates quadrupled), Tito's authority was strengthened by multinational Yugoslavia. The ideas of market socialism and self-government formed the basis of Yugoslav prosperity.

After Tito's death in 1980, centrifugal processes began in the state, which led the country to disintegration in the early 1990s, the war in Croatia, and the mass genocide of Serbs in Croatia and Kosovo. By 1999, the former flourishing Yugoslavia lay in ruins, hundreds of thousands of families were destroyed, national enmity and hatred raged. Yugoslavia was made up of only two former republics - Serbia and Montenegro, the last of which seceded in 2006. In 1999-2000 aviation of NATO countries carried out bombing strikes on civilian and military targets, forcing the incumbent president - S. Milosevic to retire.

The second country that left the united socialist camp and was no longer part of it was Albania. Albanian leader and staunch Stalinist Enver Hoxha did not agree with the decision of the XX Congress of the CPSU to condemn Stalin's personality cult and severed diplomatic relations with the USSR, leaving the CMEA. The further existence of Albania was tragic. Hoxha's one-man regime led the country to decline and mass poverty of the population. In the early 1990s between Serbs and Albanians, national conflicts began to flare up, resulting in the mass destruction of Serbs and the occupation of primordially Serbian territories, which continue to this day.

For other countries socialist camps more stringent policies. So when in In 1956, unrest broke out among Polish workers, protesting against unbearable living conditions, the columns were shot by the troops, and the leaders of the workers were found and destroyed. But in the light of the political transformations taking place at that time in the USSR, associated with de-Stalinization of society, in Moscow they agreed to put the repressed under Stalin at the head of Poland Vladislav Gomulka. Power will later pass to General Wojciech Jaruzelski who will fight against the politically rising the Solidarity movement representing workers and independent trade unions. Movement leader - Lech Walesa - became the leader of the protest (see Fig. 3). Throughout the 1980s. "Solidarity" was gaining more and more popularity, despite the persecution of the authorities. In 1989, with the collapse of the socialist system, Solidarity came to power in Poland. In the 1990s - 2000s. Poland is on the way European integration joined NATO.

In 1956 an uprising broke out in Budapest.. The reason was the de-Stalinization and the demand of the workers and the intelligentsia for fair and open elections, the unwillingness to be dependent on Moscow. The uprising soon resulted in the persecution and arrests of members of the Hungarian state security; part of the army went over to the side of the people. By decision of Moscow, ATS troops were brought into Budapest. Leadership of the Hungarian Workers' Party led by a Stalinist Matthias Rakosi, was forced to appoint to the post of prime minister Imre Nadia. Soon Nagy announced Hungary's withdrawal from the Department of Internal Affairs, which angered Moscow. Tanks were again brought into Budapest, and the uprising was brutally suppressed. became the new leader Janos Kadar, who repressed most of the rebels (Nagy was shot), but began to carry out economic reforms that contributed to the fact that Hungary turned into one of the most prosperous countries in the socialist camp. With the collapse of the socialist system, Hungary abandoned its former ideals, and a pro-Western leadership came to power. In 1990-2000 Hungary joined European Union (EU) and NATO.

In 1968 in Czechoslovakia A new communist government was elected, led by Alexander Dubcek who wanted to carry out economic, social and political transformation. Seeing an indulgence in domestic life, all of Czechoslovakia was engulfed in rallies. Seeing that the socialist state began to gravitate towards the world of capital, the leader of the USSR L.I. Brezhnev ordered the introduction of ATS troops into Czechoslovakia. The correlation of forces between the world of capital and socialism, which is not changed under any circumstances, after 1945 was called "The Brezhnev Doctrine". In August 1968, troops were brought in, the entire leadership of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was arrested, tanks opened fire on people on the streets of Prague (see Fig. 4). Soon Dubcek will be replaced by a pro-Soviet one. Gustav Husak, which will adhere to the official line of Moscow. In 1990-2000 Czechoslovakia will break up into the Czech Republic and Slovakia Velvet Revolution» 1990), which will join the EU and NATO.

Bulgaria and Romania throughout the entire period of the existence of the socialist camp will remain faithful to Moscow in their political and economic transformations. With the collapse of the common system, pro-Western forces will come to power in these countries, which will be set up for European integration.

Thus, the countries People's Democracy', or countries ' real socialism” over the past 60 years have experienced a transformation from a socialist system to a capitalist system led by the United States, being largely dependent on the influence of a new leader.

Bibliography

Shubin A.V. General history. Recent history. Grade 9: textbook. For general education institutions. Moscow: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. M.: Education, 2010.
Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: Education, 2011.

Military industrial courier ().
Internet portal Coldwar.ru ().
Internet portal Ipolitics.ru ().

Homework

Read paragraph 21 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. and answer questions 1-4 on page 226.
Name the countries of Europe included in the so-called. Orbit of the USSR. Why did Yugoslavia and Albania drop out of it?
Was it possible to maintain a common socialist camp?
Have Eastern European countries changed from one patron to another? Why?

Events

1940s- in the countries of Eastern Europe there was a wave of coups, which brought the communists to power; during these years, new states appear on the map of Europe.

Bibliography

Shubin A.V. General history. Recent history. Grade 9: textbook. For general education institutions. Moscow: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. M.: Education, 2010.
Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: Education, 2011.

Military industrial courier ().
Internet portal Coldwar.ru ().
Internet portal Ipolitics.ru ().

Homework

Read paragraph 21 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. and answer questions 1-4 on page 226.
Name the countries of Europe included in the so-called. Orbit of the USSR. Why did Yugoslavia and Albania drop out of it?
Was it possible to maintain a common socialist camp?
Have Eastern European countries changed from one patron to another? Why?

In the summer of 1980, workers began to protest in Poland, the reason for which was another price increase. Gradually, they covered the cities of the northern coast of the country. In Gdansk, on the basis of an interfactory strike committee, the trade union association "Solidarity" was formed.

Under the banner of Solidarity

Its participants presented "21 demands" to the authorities. This document contained both economic and political demands, including: to recognize free trade unions independent of the state and the right of workers to strike, to stop persecution for their beliefs, to expand the access of public and religious organizations to the media, etc. The head of the All-Polish Commission of the trade union association "Solidarity", an electrical worker L. Walesa was elected.

The expanding influence of the trade union association and its beginning to develop into a political movement prompted the government to introduce martial law in the country in December 1981. The activities of Solidarity were banned, its leaders were interned (subjected to house arrest). But the authorities could not eliminate the imminent crisis.

In June 1989 parliamentary elections were held in Poland on a multi-party basis. They won "Solidarity". The new coalition government was headed by the representative of "Solidarity" T. Mazowiecki. In December 1990, L. Walesa was elected president of the country.

Lech Walesa was born in 1943 into a peasant family. He graduated from the school of agricultural mechanization, began working as an electrician. In 1967, he entered the shipyard as an electrician. Lenin in Gdansk. In 1970 and 1979-1980. - member of the strike committee of the shipyard. One of the organizers and leaders of the Solidarity trade union. In December 1981 he was interned, in 1983 he returned to the shipyard as an electrician. In 1990-1995 - President of the Republic of Poland. The extraordinary political fate of L. Walesa was generated both by time and by the personal qualities of this person. Publicists noted that he was a "typical Pole", a deeply believing Catholic, a family man. At the same time, it is no coincidence that he was called the "flexible man of iron." He was distinguished not only by his pronounced abilities as a political fighter and orator, but also by his ability to choose his own path, to perform actions that neither opponents nor comrades-in-arms expected from him.

1989-1990s: big changes

Panorama of events

August 1989- The first Solidarity government in Poland was formed.
November - December 1989- mass demonstrations of the population and the displacement of the communist leadership in the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria.
By June 1990 as a result of multi-party elections in all countries of Eastern Europe (except Albania), new governments and leaders came to power.
March - April 1991- The first parliamentary elections on a multi-party basis in Albania, since June a coalition government has been in power.

In less than two years, power has changed in eight Eastern European countries. Why did it happen so? This question can be asked for each country separately. One might also ask: why did this happen in all countries at almost the same time?

Let's consider specific situations.

German Democratic Republic

Dates and events

1989

October- mass anti-government demonstrations in different cities, their dispersal, arrests of participants, the rise of a social movement for the renewal of the existing system.
November 9- The Berlin Wall fell.
By the end of November more than 100 political parties and social movements emerged in the country.
the 1st of December- Article 1 of the Constitution of the GDR (on the leading role of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany) was abolished.
December- the mass exit of SED members from the party, by January 1990, out of the previous 2.3 million, 1.1 million people remained in the party.
December 10-11 and 16-17- Extraordinary Congress of the SED, its transformation into the Party of Democratic Socialism.

Fall of the Berlin Wall

1990

March- parliamentary elections, the victory of the conservative bloc "Alliance for Germany" led by the Christian Democratic Union.
April- A “grand coalition” government was formed, half of the posts in which were occupied by representatives of the CDU.
July 1- the agreement between the GDR and the FRG on economic, monetary and social union came into force.
October 3 The German Unification Treaty entered into force.

Czechoslovakia

Events named afterwards "velvet revolution", began on November 17, 1989. On this day, students organized a demonstration in Prague in connection with the 50th anniversary of the anti-Nazi speech of Czech students during the years of German occupation. During the demonstration, demands were made for the democratization of society and the resignation of the government. Law enforcement forces dispersed the demonstration, detained some of the participants, and several people were injured.

November 19 a protest demonstration took place in Prague with anti-government slogans, calls for a strike. On the same day, the Civil Forum was established - a public movement that put forward demands to remove a number of country leaders from their posts, and the Socialist Party (dissolved in 1948) was also restored. Supporting the public outcry, Prague theatres, including the National Theatre, have canceled performances.

20 November in Prague, a 150,000-strong demonstration took place under the slogan “End of the rule of one party!”, demonstrations began in various cities of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

The government had to enter into negotiations with representatives of the Civil Forum. Parliament repealed articles of the constitution on the leading role of the Communist Party in society and the defining role of Marxism-Leninism in upbringing and education. On December 10, a coalition government was created, which included the Communists, representatives of the Civil Forum, the Socialist and People's Parties. Some time later, A. Dubcek became the chairman of the Federal Assembly (parliament). V. Havel was elected President of the country.

Vaclav Havel born in 1936. Received an economic education. In the 1960s he began working in the theater and became known as a playwright and writer. Member of the "Prague Spring" in 1968. After 1969, he was deprived of the opportunity to practice his profession, worked as a laborer. Between 1970 and 1989 he was imprisoned three times for political reasons. Since November 1989 - one of the leaders of the Civil Forum. In 1989-1992 - President of the Czechoslovak Republic. Since 1993 - the first president of the newly formed Czech Republic (he held this post in 1993-2003).

Romania

While serious changes had already taken place in neighboring countries, in Romania on November 20-24, 1989, the XIV Congress of the Communist Party was held. The five-hour report of the General Secretary of the Party, Nicolae Ceausescu, on the successes achieved, was met with endless applause. The slogans "Ceausescu and the people!", "Ceausescu - communism!" sounded in the hall. With stormy joy, the congress greeted the announcement of the election of Ceausescu to his post for a new term.

From publications in Romanian newspapers of that time:

“To the imperialist forces, which are stepping up efforts to undermine and destabilize socialism, speaking of its “crisis”, we respond with deeds: the whole country has turned into a huge construction site and a flowering garden. And this is because Romanian socialism is the socialism of free labor, and not of the “market”, it does not leave the cardinal problems of development to chance and does not understand improvement, renewal, perestroika as the restoration of capitalist forms.”
“The unanimous commitment to the decision to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of General Secretary of the RCP is a political vote for the continuation of the tried and tested constructive course, as well as recognition of the heroic example of a revolutionary and patriot, the leader of our party and state. Together with the entire Romanian people, writers, with a sense of full responsibility, join the proposal to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of head of our party.

A month later, on December 21, at an official rally in the center of Bucharest, instead of toasts, shouts of “Down with Ceausescu!” were heard from the crowd. The actions of the army units directed against the demonstrators soon stopped. Realizing that the situation was out of control, N. Ceausescu and his wife E. Ceausescu (a well-known party leader) fled Bucharest. The next day they were arrested and put on trial by a tribunal held in strict secrecy. On December 26, 1989, the Romanian media reported on the court that sentenced the Ceausescu couple to death (they were shot 15 minutes after the verdict was announced).

Already on December 23, Romanian television announced the creation of the Council of the National Salvation Front, which assumed full power. Ion Iliescu, once a member of the Communist Party, who was repeatedly removed from party posts in the 1970s for opposition sentiments, became the Chairman of the Council of the Federal Tax Service. In May 1990, I. Iliescu was elected president of the country.

The overall result of the events of 1989-1990. was the fall of communist regimes in all countries of Eastern Europe. Communist parties collapsed, some of them were transformed into parties of the social democratic type. New political forces and leaders came to power.

At a new stage

The “new people” in power were most often liberal politicians (in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Czech Republic). In some cases, for example in Romania, these were former members of the communist parties who had gone over to social democratic positions. The main activities of the new governments in the economic sphere provided for the transition to a market economy. Privatization (transfer to private hands) of state property began, price controls were abolished. Significantly reduced social spending, "frozen" wages. The breaking of the previously existing system was carried out in a number of cases by the most severe methods in the shortest possible time, for which it was called “shock therapy” (this option was carried out in Poland).

By the mid-1990s, the economic and social costs of the reforms became apparent: a decline in production and the ruin of hundreds of enterprises, mass unemployment, rising prices, the stratification of society into the few rich and thousands of people living below the poverty line, etc. The governments responsible for the reforms and their consequences, began to lose the support of the population. In the elections of 1995-1996. in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, representatives of the socialists won. Strengthened the position of the Social Democrats in the Czech Republic. In Poland, as a result of a change in public sentiment, L. Walesa, the most popular politician in the early 1990s, lost the presidential election. In 1995, the Social Democrat A. Kwasniewski became the President of the country.

Changes in the foundations of the social system could not but affect national relations. Previously, rigid centralized systems tied each state into a single whole. With their fall, the road was opened not only for national self-determination, but also for the actions of nationalist and separatist forces. In 1991 -1992 the Yugoslav state collapsed. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia retained two of the six former Yugoslav republics - Serbia and Montenegro. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia became independent states. However, the state demarcation was accompanied by an aggravation of ethno-national contradictions in each of the republics.

Bosnian crisis. An intractable situation has developed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbs, Croats and Muslims historically coexisted here (the concept of “Muslims” in Bosnia is considered as a definition of nationality, although we are talking about the Slavic population that converted to Islam after the Turkish conquest in the 14th century). Ethnic differences were supplemented by religious ones: in addition to the division into Christians and Muslims, the Serbs belonged to the Orthodox Church, and the Croats belonged to the Catholic Church. In a single Serbo-Croatian language, there were two alphabets - Cyrillic (among the Serbs) and Latin (among the Croats).

Throughout the 20th century strong central authority in the Yugoslav kingdom, and then in the federal socialist state, kept national contradictions in check. In the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which broke away from Yugoslavia, they manifested themselves with particular severity. The Serbs, who made up half of the population of Bosnia, refused to recognize secession from the Yugoslav federation, and then proclaimed the Serbian Republic in Bosnia. In 1992-1994 armed conflict broke out between Serbs, Muslims and Croats. It led to numerous casualties not only among those who fought, but also among the civilian population. In the camps for prisoners, in settlements, people were killed. Thousands of residents left their villages and cities and became refugees. To contain the internecine struggle, UN peacekeeping troops were sent to Bosnia. By the mid-1990s, military operations in Bosnia were stopped by the efforts of international diplomacy.

In 2006, Montenegro seceded from Serbia following a plebiscite. The Republic of Yugoslavia ceased to exist.

AT Serbia after 1990, a crisis arose associated with the autonomous province of Kosovo, 90% of the population of which were Albanians (Muslims by religion). The limitation of the province's autonomy led to the self-proclamation of the "Republic of Kosovo". An armed conflict broke out. At the end of the 1990s, with international mediation, a negotiation process began between the leadership of Serbia and the leaders of the Kosovo Albanians. In an effort to put pressure on Serbian President S. Milosevic, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO intervened in the conflict. In March 1999, NATO troops began bombing the territory of Yugoslavia. The crisis has grown to a European scale.

The peoples have chosen a different way of settling national problems Czechoslovakia. In 1992, as a result of a referendum, a decision was made to divide the country. The division procedure was thoroughly discussed and prepared, for which the publicists called this event a "divorce with a human face." On January 1, 1993, two new states appeared on the world map - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

The changes that took place in the Eastern European countries had significant foreign policy consequences. In the early 1990s, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact ceased to exist. In 1991, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Hungary, East Germany, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. The economic and military-political organizations of Western European countries, primarily the European Union and NATO, have become the center of attraction for the countries of the region. In 1999 Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO, and in 2004 another 7 states (Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) joined NATO. In the same 2004, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic became EU members, and in 2007 - Romania and Bulgaria.

At the beginning of the XXI century. in most countries of Central and Eastern Europe (as the region began to be called), left and right governments and state leaders were replaced in power. So, in the Czech Republic, the center-left government was supposed to cooperate with President W. Klaus, who occupies the right positions (elected in 2003), in Poland, the leftist politician A. Kwasniewski was replaced as president of the country by the representative of the right forces L. Kaczynski (2005-2010). It is noteworthy that both the “left” and “right” governments, in one way or another, solved the common tasks of accelerating the economic development of countries, bringing their political and economic systems in line with European standards, and resolving social problems.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.

The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States compared to the first half of the century, which had several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events.

The dominant development in the second half of the 20th century is considered to be a significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society.. However, even in these decades, the countries of the Western world faced a number of complex problems, such as the technological and information revolution, the collapse of colonial empires, the global economic crises of 1974-2975, 1980-1982, social performances in the 60s 70s etc. All of them demanded one or another restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways of further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world. The first post-war years in European countries became a time of sharp struggle around issues of social structure, the political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around the elections to constituent assemblies, the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as a "battle for the republic", the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946.

In the conservative camp, from the mid-1940s, the parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the promotion of Christian values as enduring and uniting different social strata of ideological foundations became the most influential. These included: the Christian Democratic Party (CDA) in Italy, the People's Republican Movement in France, the Christian Democratic Union in Germany. These parties sought to gain broad support in society and emphasized adherence to the principles of democracy.

After the end of the warin most Western European countries established coalition governments in which the decisive role was played by representatives of the socialist left and, in some cases, the communists. Main activities These governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the cleansing of the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the invaders. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, the Renault automobile plant (whose owner collaborated with the occupation regime) were nationalized.

The 1950s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. It was a time of rapid economic development (the growth of industrial production reached 5-6% per year). Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. A scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main directions of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of workers who managed automatic lines and systems increased, and their wages also increased.

In Great Britain, the level of wages in the 1950s increased by an average of 5% per year, while prices rose by 3% per year. In Germany during the 1950s real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example, in Italy, in Austria, the figures were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically froze wages (prohibited its increase). This caused protests and strikes by workers. The economic recovery was especially noticeable in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the economy here was adjusted more difficult and slower than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 1950s was regarded as an "economic miracle." It became possible thanks to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, the production of synthetic fibers, etc.), and the industrialization of agricultural areas. American assistance under the Marshall plan served as a significant help. A favorable condition for the rise in production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various manufactured goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (at the expense of immigrants, people from the village). The economic recovery was accompanied by social stability. Under conditions of reduced unemployment, relative price stability, and rising wages, workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 1950s. , when some negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc. After a decade of stability in the life of Western European states, a period of upheavals and changes began, associated both with problems of internal development and with the collapse of colonial empires.

So, in France, by the end of the 50s, a crisis situation developed, caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia, Morocco, the war in Algeria), and the worsening situation of workers. In such an environment, the idea of "strong power" was gaining more and more support, and Charles de Gaulle was an active supporter of it. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algiers refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to assume power in the republic", subject to the abolition of the 1946 Constitution and the granting of emergency powers to him. In the fall of 1958, the Constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which granted the head of state the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a regime of personal power, he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization “from above”, while maintaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for a shameful expulsion, for example, because of Algeria, which fought for independence. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their own fate caused in 1960. anti-government military mutiny. And yet, in 1962, Algeria gained independence.

In the 1960s, speeches by different segments of the population under different slogans became more frequent in European countries. In France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces opposed to the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy, there were mass demonstrations against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers put forward both economic and political demands. The fight for higher wages included "white collars" - highly skilled workers, employees.

Crisis of 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing social policy, state regulation of the economy did not work. The conservatives tried to answer the challenge of the times. Their focus on a free market economy, private enterprise and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production.

In the late 70s and early 80s. conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained in power until 1997). In 1980, Republican R. Reagan was elected President of the United States . The figures who came to power during this period were not in vain called the new conservatives. They have shown that they can look ahead and are capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to the general population, neglect of lazy people, independence, self-reliance and striving for individual success.

In the late 90s. in many European countries, conservatives were replaced by liberals. In 1997, the Labor government headed by E. Blair came to power in the UK. In 1998, Schroeder, leader of the Social Democratic Party, became Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by A. Merkel, who headed the grand coalition government.