What proportion of sunlight is absorbed by the surface of the earth. Absorption and dispersion of radiation

Figure 1 - histogram of changes in the intensity of solar radiation (energy) on the way to the hot brine of the solar salt pond.

To assess the effectiveness of the active use of various types of solar radiation, it will be determined with which of the natural, technogenic and operational factors have positive, and which negative impact on the concentration (increase in the flow) of solar radiation in the pond and accumulating it with hot brine.

The land and the atmosphere are obtained from the Sun per year 1.3 ∙ 1024 feces of heat. It is measured by intensity, i.e. The amount of radiant energy (in calories), which comes from the Sun per unit of time on the surface area perpendicular to the solar rays.

The radiant energy of the Sun reaches the ground in the form of a straight and scattered radiation, i.e. total. It is absorbed by the earth and turns into heat not completely, part of it is lost in the form of reflected radiation.

Direct and scattered (total), reflected and absorbed radiation belong to the short-wave part of the spectrum. Along with short-wave radiation to the earth's surface, the long-wave radiation of the atmosphere (counter radiation) comes, in turn, the earth surface radiates long-wave radiation (own radiation).

Direct solar radiation refers to the main natural factor of energy intake to the water surface of the solar salt pond. Solar radiation, entering the active surface in the form of a beam of parallel rays, emanating directly from the Sun disk, is called direct solar radiation. Direct solar radiation refers to a short-wave part of the spectrum (with wavelengths from 0.17 to 4 μm, actually the earth's surface reaches the rays with a wavelength of 0.29 microns)

The solar spectrum can be divided into three main areas:

Ultraviolet radiation (- visible radiation (0.4 μm - infrared radiation (\u003e 0.7 microns) - 46% of intensity. The near infrared region (0.7 microns with wavelengths of more than 2.5 μm, weak extraterrestrial radiation is intensively absorbed by CO2 and water. So only a small part of this range of solar energy reaches the surface of the Earth.

The far infrared range (\u003e 12 μm) of solar radiation is practically not acting on the ground.

From the point of view of the use of solar energy on Earth, only radiation in the wavelength range of 0.29 - 2.5 μm / most of the solar energy outside the atmosphere accounted for the range of wavelengths 0.2 - 4 μm, and on the surface of the Earth - Range 0.29 - 2.5 μm.

Follow up, as redistributed, in general, the energy flows that the sun gives the earth. Take 100 conventional solar power units (1.36 kW / m2) falling to the ground, and follow their paths in the atmosphere. One percentage (13.6 W / m2), a short ultraviolet of the solar spectrum is absorbed by molecules in an exosphere and a thermosphere, warming them. Three more percent (40.8 W / m2) of the near ultraviolet are absorbed by ozone stratosphere. The infrared tail of the solar spectrum (4% or 54.4 W / m2) remains in the upper layers of the troposphere, containing the water pair (above the water steam there is practically no).

The remaining 92 shares of solar energy (1.25 kW / m2) fall on the "transparency window" of the atmosphere of 0.29 μm diffused in the atmosphere light power (only 48 pages or 652.8 W / m2) is partially absorbed by it (10 shares or 136 W / m2), and the rest is distributed between the surface of the Earth and the space. In outer space, more than falls on the surface, 30 shares (408 W / m2) up, 8 shares (108.8 W / m2) down.

It was described the overall, averaged, the picture of the redistribution of solar energy in the Earth's atmosphere. However, it does not allow to solve the private tasks of using solar energy to meet the needs of a person in the specific zone of his living and work activities and that is why.

The atmosphere of the Earth better reflects oblique sunlight, so hourly insolation at the equator and in medium latitudes is much more than in high.

Sun height values \u200b\u200b(elevations over the horizon) 90, 30, 20, and 12 ⁰ (air (optical) mass (m) of the atmosphere corresponds to 1, 2, 3, and 5) with a cloudless atmosphere corresponds to the intensity of about 900, 750, 600 and 400 W / m2 (at 42 ⁰ - m \u003d 1.5, and at 15 ⁰ - m \u003d 4). In fact, the total energy of the incident radiation exceeds the specified values, since it includes not only the direct component, but also scattered with air masses 1, 2, 3 and 5, the magnitude of the diffuse component of the radiation intensity to the horizontal surface under these conditions is respectively equal to 110, 90, 70 and 50 W / m2 (with a coefficient of 0.3 - 0.7 for a vertical plane, since only half of the sky is visible). In addition, in the areas of the skyscland close to the Sun, there is a "chamolar halo" in the radius ≈ 5⁰.

The daily amount of solar radiation is not at the equator as much as possible, but near 40 ⁰. A similar fact is also a consequence of the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit. During the summer solstice, the sun in the tropics almost all day is above the head and the duration of the daylight - 13.5 hours, more than the equator on the day of the equinox. With an increase in geographic latitude, the duration of the day increases, and although the intensity of solar radiation is reduced, the maximum value of the daily insolation falls on a latitude of about 40 ⁰ and remains almost constant (for the conditions of a cloudless sky) up to the polar circle.

Taking into account the cloudiness and pollution of the atmosphere of industrial waste characteristic of many countries of the world, given in the magnitude table should be reduced, at least twice. For example, for England.

The first data, the transparency of the atmosphere on Baikal was obtained by V.V. Buffalom in 1964 It showed that the values \u200b\u200bof direct solar radiation over Baikal are 13% higher than in Irkutsk. The average spectral coefficient of the transparency of the atmosphere on the North Baikal in the summer period is for red, green and blue filters, respectively, 0.949, 0.906, 0.883. In the summer period, the atmosphere is more unstable in optical terms than in winter, and this instability changes significantly from supplemented to the afternoon clock. Depending on the annual movement of weakening with water ferry and aerosols, their contribution to the overall weakening of solar radiation is also changing. In the cold part of the year, aerosols play the main role, in warm - water vapor. Baikal Baikal and Lake Baikal are distinguished by a relatively high integral transparency of the atmosphere. With the optical mass M \u003d 2, the average values \u200b\u200bof the transparency coefficient range from 0.73 (in summer) to 0.83 (in winter). In this case, the intertoon changes in the integral transparency of the atmosphere are high, especially at a midday hours - from 0.67 to 0.77. Aerosols significantly reduce the flow of direct solar radiation into the water area, and they absorb mainly the radiation of the visible spectrum, with the wavelength, which is unhindered a freshly layer of the pond, and this is a great value for accumulating the solar energy pond. (The water layer with a thickness of 1 cm is practically opaque for infrared radiation with a wavelength of more than 1 μm). Therefore, water with a thickness of several centimeters is used as a heat shield filter. For glass, the long-wavelength bandwidth of infrared radiation is 2.7 microns.

A large number of dust particles, smoothly portable in the steppe also reduces the transparency of the atmosphere.

Electromagnetic radiation emit all heated bodies, with the colder the body, the less the intensity of the radiation and the further in the long-wavelength region is shifted to the maximum of its spectrum. There is a very simple relation [\u003d 0.2898 cm ∙ hail. (The law of wine)], with the help of which it is easy to install, where there is a maximum of the radiation of the body with a temperature (⁰k). For example, a human body having a temperature of 37 + 273 \u003d 310 ⁰K, emits infrared rays with a maximum near the value \u003d 9.3 μm. And the walls, for example, the heliosushilos, with a temperature of 90 ⁰c will emit infrared rays with a maximum near the value \u003d 8 μm. Visible solar radiation (0.4 μm at one time, a large progress was a transition from an electric coal filament lamp to a modern lamp with tungsten thread. The thing is that the coal thread can be touched to a temperature of 2100 ⁰k, and tungsten - up to 2500 ⁰ . Why are these 400 ⁰k so important? The thing is that the purpose of the incandescent lamp is not to warm, but to give light. Therefore, it is necessary to achieve such a situation that the maximum curve occurred on the visible study. An ideal would have to have such a thread that could have supported The temperature of the surface of the Sun. But even the transition from 2100 to 2500 ⁰k increases the proportion of energy per visible radiation, from 0.5 to 1.6%.

Infrared rays emanating from the body heated to only 60 to 70 ° C, everyone can feel, bringing the palm from below (to eliminate thermal convection). The arrival of direct solar radiation into the pond water area corresponds to its arrival on the horizontal surface of the irradiation. At the same time, the above shows the uncertainty of the quantitative characteristic of the arrival at a particular point in time, both seasonal and daily. The constant characteristic is only the height of the Sun (optical mass of the atmosphere).

The accumulation of solar radiation with a ground surface and a pond differ significantly.

The natural surfaces of the Earth have a different reflective (absorbing) ability. So, dark surfaces (chernozem, peat swamps) have a low albedo value of about 10%. (Albedo surface is the ratio of the radiation flow reflected by this surface into the surrounding space, to the flow that fell on it).

Light surfaces (white sand) have a large albedo, 35 - 40%. Albedo surfaces with herbal cover ranges in the range of 15 - 25%. Albedo crowns of deciduous forest in summer is 14 - 17%, coniferous forest - 12 - 15%. Albedo surface decreases with an increase in the height of the sun.

The albedo of the water surfaces is within 3 - 45%, depending on the height of the Sun and the degree of excitement.

With a calm water surface, the albedo depends only on the height of the Sun (Figure 2).

Figure 2 - Dependence of the reflection coefficient of solar radiation for a calm water surface from the height of the sun.

The accession of solar radiation and passing it through the water layer has its own characteristics.

In general, the optical properties of water (its solutions) in the visible region of solar radiation are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 - Optical properties of water (its solutions) in the visible region of solar radiation

On the flat boundary of the two media air - water is observed phenomena of reflection and refraction of light.

When reflecting the light, the falling falling, the beam reflected and perpendicular to the reflective surface, restored at the point of the fall in the beam, lie in the same plane, and the reflection angle is equal to the angle of the fall. In the case of refraction, the incident beam, perpendicular, restored at the point of the falling beam to the border of the two media partition, and the refracted ray is lying in the same plane. The angle of falling and the refractive angle (Figure 4) are connected /, where - the absolute refractive index of the second medium is the first. Because for air, then the formula will take the form

Figure 4 - refraction of rays when moving from air to water

When the rays go out of the air into water, they approach the "perpendicular of the fall"; For example, a beam falling to the water at an angle to the perpendicular to the water surface, it is already at an angle, which is less than (Fig. 4, a). But when the incident beam, gliding along the water surface, falls on the aqueous surface almost at a right angle to the perpendicular, for example, at an angle of 89 ⁰ and less, then it enters the water at an angle, less than a straight line, namely at an angle of only 48.5 ⁰. At a large angle to perpendicular than 48.5 ⁰, the ray cannot enter the water: it is for the water "limit" angle (Figure 4, b).

Consequently, the rays falling on the water under all sorts of angles are compressed under water in a fairly close cone with an angle of solution of 48.5 ⁰ + 48.5 ⁰ \u003d 97 ⁰ (Fig. 4, B). In addition, the refraction of water depends on its temperature, but these changes are so not significant that they cannot represent interest for engineering practice, according to the topic under consideration.

We now follow the progress of the rays going back (from the point P) - from the water to the air (Figure 5). According to the laws of optics, the paths will be the same, and all rays concluded in the 97-degree cone mentioned will be in the air at various angles, distributed throughout the 180 degree space over the water. The underwater rays located outside the mentioned angle (97-degree) will not come out from under the water, and they will decrease entirely from its surface, as from the mirror.

Figure 5 - refraction of rays when moving from water to the air

If there is only a reflected beam, the refracted beam is missing (the phenomenon of complete internal reflection).

Any underwater beam, which meets the surface of water at an angle, large "limit" (i.e., large 48.5 ⁰) is not reflected, but it is reflected: it undergoes "full internal reflection." The reflection is called in this case complete because all falling rays are reflected here, meanwhile, as even the best mirror of polished silver reflects only a portion of the rays falling on it, the rest absorbs. Water under the indicated conditions is the perfect mirror. In this case, we are talking about visible light. Generally speaking, the refractive index of water, as well as other substances, depends on the wavelength (this phenomenon is called dispersion). As a result of this, an extreme angle, in which the complete internal reflection occurs, not the same for different wavelengths, but for visible light when the water is reflected on the border - the air changes less than 1⁰.

Due to the fact that at a large angle to the perpendicular than 48,5 ⁰, the sun ray cannot join the water: it is for the water "limit" angle (Figure 4, b), then the aqueous mass, in the entire range of the height of the height of the Sun changes not so slightly than the air - it is always less.

However, since, water density is 800 times the density of air, the absorption of solar radiation with water will vary significantly. In addition, if the light radiation passes through the transparent medium, then the spectrum of this light has some features. Certain lines in it are strongly weakened, i.e., the waves of the corresponding length are strongly absorbed by the medium under consideration. Such spectra are called absorption spectra. The type of absorption spectrum depends on the substance under consideration.

Since the solution of salts of a solar salt pond may contain various concentrations of sodium and magnesium chloride and their relationship, it is unambiguous to talk about the absorption spectra no sense. Although research and data on this issue is abuse.

For example, studies conducted in the USSR (Y. Usmanov) to identify the radiation transmission coefficient of various wavelengths for water and a solution of magnesium chloride of various concentrations obtained the following results (Figure 6). A B. J. Brinkworth shows a graphic dependence of the absorption of solar radiation and the monochromatic density of the solar radiation stream (radiation) depending on the wavelengths (Figure 7).

Consequently, the quantitative entry of direct solar radiation to the hot brine of the pond, after entering the water, will depend on the monochromatic density of the solar radiation stream (radiation); From the height of the sun. And also from the albedo surface of the pond, from the purity of the upper layer of the solar salt pond, consisting of fresh water, with a thickness of usually 0.1 - 0.3 m, where to suppress stirring is not possible, the composition, concentration and thickness of the solution in the gradient layer (insulating layer With an increasing book with a concentration of brine), from the purity of water and brine.

Figures 6 and 7 it follows that water has the greatest bandwidth in the visible region of the solar spectrum. This is a very favorable factor for passing solar radiation through the upper fresh layer of the solar salt pond.

Bibliography

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2 Twidelle J. Renewable Energy Sources / J. Twidelle, A. Wair. M.: Energoatomizdat, 1990. 392 p.
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4 Baikal climatic resources and its pool / n. P. Ladeyers, Novosibirsk, Science, 1976, 318c.
5 PIKIN S. A. Liquid crystals / S. A. Pikin, L. M. Blinov. M.: Science, 1982. 208 p.
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Lecture 2.

SOLAR RADIATION.

Plan:

1. The value of solar radiation for life on Earth.

2. Types of solar radiation.

3. Spectral composition of solar radiation.

4. Absorption and dispersion of radiation.

5.Far (photosynthetically active radiation).

6. Radiation balance.

1. The main source of energy on Earth for all living (plants, animals and humans) is the energy of the Sun.

The sun is a gas ball with a radius of 695300km. The radius of the sun is 109 times greater than the radius of the Earth (equatorial 6378,2km, the polar 6356.8km). The sun consists mainly of hydrogen (64%) and helium (32%). The rest of the rest accounts for only 4% of its masses.

Solar energy is the main condition for the existence of the biosphere and one of the main climate-forming factors. Due to the energy of the Sun, air masses in the atmosphere are continuously moving, which ensures the constancy of the gas composition of the atmosphere. Under the influence of solar radiation, a huge amount of water is evaporated from the surface of water bodies, soils, plants. Water vapor, transferred by the wind from the oceans and the seas on the continent, is the main source of precipitation for sushi.

Solar energy is an indispensable condition for the existence of green plants that transform solar energy in high-energy organic substances in the process of photosenthesis.

The growth and development of plants is the process of assimilation and processing of solar energy, therefore agricultural production is possible only under the condition of solar energy to the surface of the Earth. Russian scientist wrote: "Give the best chef as much fresh air, sunlight, a whole river of clean water, ask for sugar, starch, fats and grain from all this, and he will decide that you laugh at him. But what seems to be a completely fantastic person, freely performed in the green leaves of plants under the action of the energy of the Sun. " It is estimated that 1 kV. The meter of the leaves per hour produces grams of sugar. Due to the fact that the earth is surrounded by a solid sheath of the atmosphere, the sun's rays before reaching the surface of the Earth, pass the whole crowd of the atmosphere, which partially reflects them, partially dispels, i.e. it changes the amount and quality of sunlight entering the surface of the Earth. Living organisms are sensitive to changing the illumination intensity created by solar radiation. Due to different reactions to the intensity of illumination, all forms of vegetation are divided into light-minded and shadowish. Insufficient illumination in the crops causes, for example, a weak differentiation of tissues of solomine grain crops. As a result, the fortress and elasticity of tissues are reduced, which often leads to seeding of crops. In thickened crops, corn due to weak lighting solar radiation weakened the formation of the cobs on plants.

Solar radiation affects the chemical composition of agricultural products. For example, saccharity beets and fruits, protein content in wheat grain directly depend on the number of sunny days. The amount of oil in sunflower seeds, flax also increases with increasing the arrival of solar radiation.

The illumination of the above-ground portion of plants significantly affects the absorption of nutrients roots. With weak light, the translation of assimilates in the roots slows down, and the biosynthetic processes occurring in plant cells are braked.

Illumination affects the appearance, distribution and development of plant diseases. The period of infection consists of two phases, differing among themselves by reaction to the light factor. The first of them is actually germinating the dispute and penetration of the infectious start in the tissue of the affected culture - in most cases does not depend on the presence and intensity of light. The second - after germination, the dispute - most actively passes with high light.

The positive effect of light also affects the rate of development of the pathogen in the host plant. This is especially clearly manifested by rust fungi. The greater the light, the shorter the incubation period in the linear rust of wheat, yellow rust barley, rust flax and beans, etc. And this increases the number of mushroom generations and increases the intensity of the lesion. In the conditions of intensive lighting, the pathogen increases fertility

Some diseases are most actively developing with insufficient lighting, causing the weakening of plants and reduce their resistance to diseases (causative agents of various kinds of rot, especially vegetable crops).

Duration of lighting and plants. The rhythm of solar radiation (alternation of the bright and dark part of the day) is the most stable and repeated from year to year by the factor of the external environment. As a result of perennial research by physiologists, the dependence of the transition of plants to the generative development on a certain ratio of the length of the day and night was established. In this regard, cultures on the photoperiodic reaction can be classified by groups: short day The development of which is delayed during the duration of the day more than 10h. A short day contributes to the laying of flowers, and a long day prevents it. Such cultures include soy, rice, millet, sorghum, corn, etc.;

long day up to 12-13th., requiring long-term lighting for their development. Their development is accelerated when the duration of the day is about 20 hours. These cultures include Rye, Oats, Wheat, Len, Pea, Spinach, Clover, etc.;

neutral in relation to the length of the dayThe development of which does not depend on the duration of the day, such as tomato, buckwheat, legumes, rhubarb.

It has been established that in order to start the flowering of plants, a predominance in a radiant stream of a certain spectral composition is necessary. The plants of a short day are developing faster when the maximum radiation falls on the blue-purple rays, and the long day plants are on the red. The duration of the bright part of the day (astronomical length of the day) depends on the time of year and geographic latitude. At the equator, the duration of the day throughout the year is 12 hours ± 30 minutes. When moving from the equator to the poles after the spring equinox (21.03), the length of the day increases to the north and decreases to the south. After the autumnal equinox (09/23), the distribution of the duration of the day the opposite. In the northern hemisphere on 22.06 accounts for the longest day, the duration of which the north of the polar circle is 24 hours. The shortest day in the northern hemisphere is 22.12, and the Sun is not rising at the polar circle during the winter months at all over the horizon. In the middle latitudes, for example in Moscow, the duration of the day changes from 7 to 17.5 hours.

2. Types of solar radiation.

Solar radiation consists of three components: direct solar radiation, scattered and total.

Direct solar radiationS -radiation coming from the Sun into the atmosphere and then to the earth's surface in the form of a beam of parallel rays. Its intensity is measured in calories on cm2 per minute. It depends on the height of the Sun and the state of the atmosphere (cloudiness, dust, water vapor). The annual amount of direct solar radiation on the horizontal surface of the territory of the Stavropol Territory is 65-76 kcal / cm2 / min. At sea level at high sun position (summer, noon) and good transparency, direct solar radiation is 1.5 kcal / cm2 / min. This is a short-wave part of the spectrum. When the flow of direct solar radiation is passed through the atmosphere, it is attenuation caused by absorption (about 15%) and scattering (about 25%) of energy with gases, aerosols, clouds.

Stream direct solar radiation, falling on the horizontal surface is called insolation S.= S. sin. hO. - Vertical component of direct solar radiation.

S. – the amount of heat obtained perpendicular to the beam surface ,

hO. – sun height, i.e. angle formed by a sun beam with a horizontal surface .

At the border of the atmosphere, the intensity of solar radiation isSO.= 1,98 kcal / cm2 / min. - According to the International Agreement 1958. And called solar constant. It would be at the surface if the atmosphere was absolutely transparent.

Fig. 2.1. The path of the solar beam in the atmosphere at different heights of the sun

Scattered radiationD. – a portion of solar radiation as a result of scattering atmosphere leaves back into space, but a significant part of it enters the ground in the form of scattered radiation. Maximum scattered radiation + 1 kcal / cm2 / min. It is observed at clean heaven if high clouds are on it. With a cloudy sky, a scattered radiation spectrum is similar to sunny. This is a short-wave part of the spectrum. Wavelength 0.17-4mk.

Total radiationQ.- it consists of scattered and direct radiation on the horizontal surface. Q.= S.+ D..

The ratio between the straight and scattered radiation in the composition of total radiation depends on the height of the sun, cloudiness and contamination of the atmosphere, the height of the surface above sea level. With an increase in the height of the Sun, the share of scattered radiation during the cloudless sky decreases. The more transparent atmosphere and the higher the sun, the smaller the proportion of scattered radiation. With continuous dense cloudiness, the total radiation completely consists of scattered radiation. In winter, due to the reflection of radiation from the snow cover and its secondary scattering in the atmosphere, the share of scattered radiation in the total increases significantly increases.

The light and heat obtained by plants from the Sun is the result of the total solar radiation. Therefore, data on the amounts of radiation obtained by the surface per day, month, the growing season, are of great importance for agriculture.

Reflected solar radiation. Albedo. The total radiation that has come down to the earth's surface is partially reflected from it, creates reflected solar radiation (Rk) directed from the earth's surface into the atmosphere. The value of the reflected radiation is largely depends on the properties and state of the reflecting surface: colors, roughness, humidity, etc. The reflectivity of any surface can be characterized by its albedo (AC) value, under which the ratio of reflected solar radiation to the total. Albedo is usually expressed as a percentage:

Observations show that albedo of various surfaces varies in a relatively narrow limits (10 ... 30%), the exception is snow and water.

Albedo depends on the humidity of the soil, with an increase in which it decreases, which is important in the process of changing the thermal regime of irrigated fields. Due to the decrease in the albedo, the absorbed radiation increases with moisturizing the soil. Albedo of various surfaces has a well-pronounced daily and annual move due to albedo dependence on the height of the sun. The smallest value of the albedo is observed in the nearby clock, and during the year - in the summer.

Earth's own radiation and counter-radiation of the atmosphere. Effective radiation. The earth's surface as a physical body having a temperature above absolute zero (-273 ° C) is a source of radiation, which is called the eigenous radiation of the Earth (E3). It is directed to the atmosphere and is almost completely absorbed by water vapor, water droplets and carbon dioxide contained in the air. Earth radiation depends on the temperature of its surface.

The atmosphere, absorbing a small amount of solar radiation and almost all the energy emitted by the earth's surface, heats up and, in turn, also emits energy. About 30% of atmospheric radiation goes into outer space, and about 70% comes to the surface of the Earth and is called the oncoming radiation of the atmosphere (EA).

The amount of energy emitted by the atmosphere is directly proportional to its temperature, carbon dioxide, ozone and clouds.

The surface of the Earth absorbs this oncoming radiation is almost entirely (by 90 ... 99%). Thus, it is an important source of heat for the earth's surface in addition to the absorbed solar radiation. This effect of the atmosphere on the thermal regime of the Earth is called a greenhouse or greenhouse due to the external analogy with the action of glasses in greenhouses and greenhouses. The glass skips the solar rays, heating the soil and plants, but delays the thermal radiation of the heated soil and plants.

The difference between its own radiation of the earth's surface and the counter-radiation of the atmosphere is called efficient radiation: EEF.

EEF \u003d. E3-EA

In clear and cloudless nights, effective radiation is much more than in cloudy, therefore more and night cooling of the earth's surface. In the afternoon, it is overlapped by the total radiation absorbed by the total radiation, as a result of which the surface temperature rises. In this case, efficient radiation is growing. The earth's surface in medium latitudes is losing due to the effective radiation of 70 ... 140 W / m2, which is approximately half the amount of heat that it receives from the absorption of solar radiation.

3. The spectral composition of radiation.

The sun, as a radiation source, has a variety of emitted waves. The streams of radiant energy along the wavelength are conditionally divided by shortwave (X. < 4 мкм) и длинноволновую (А. > 4 μm) radiation. The solar radiation spectrum on the boundary of the earth's atmosphere almost lies between the wavelengths of 0.17 and 4 microns, and the earth and atmospheric radiation - from 4 to 120 μm. Consequently, solar radiation streams (S, D, RK) refer to short-wave radiation, and the radiation of the Earth (£ 3) and the atmosphere (EA) to the long-wave.

The spectrum of solar radiation can be divided into three qualitatively different parts: ultraviolet (y< 0,40 мкм), ви­димую (0,40 мкм < Y < 0.75 μm) and infrared (0.76 microns < Y. < 4 μm). To the ultraviolet part of the spectrum of solar radiation lies x-ray, and for infrared - the radio emission of the Sun. On the upper boundary of the atmosphere on the ultraviolet part of the spectrum accounts for about 7% of solar radiation energy, 46 - on visible and 47% - to infrared.

Radiation radiated by the earth and atmosphere are called far infrared radiation.

The biological effect of different types of radiation on plants is different. Ultraviolet radiationslows down the growth processes, but accelerates the passage of the stages of the formation of reproductive organs in plants.

The meaning of infrared radiationwhich is actively absorbed by water of leaves and plants stalks, consists in its thermal effect, which significantly affects the growth and development of plants.

Far infrared radiation It produces only thermal effect on plants. Its influence on the growth and development of plants is irrelevant.

Visible part of the solar spectrumFirst, creates light. Secondly, with the region of visible radiation almost coincides (capturing partially region of ultraviolet radiation) so-called physiological radiation (A, \u003d \u003d 0.35 ... 0.75 μm), which is absorbed by sheet pigments. Its energy has an important regulatory and energy importance in the life of plants. Within this section of the spectrum, the region of photosynthetically active radiation is distinguished.

4. Absorption and dispersion of radiation in the atmosphere.

Passing through the earth's atmosphere, solar radiation is weakened due to absorption and scattering by atmospheric gases and aerosols. In this case, its spectral composition changes. At various heights of the sun and the different height of the observation point over the earth's surface, the length of the path passing by the solar beam in the atmosphere, non-etinakov. As the height decreases, the ultraviolet part of radiation is particularly reduced, somewhat less - visible and only slightly infrared.

Radiation scattering in the atmosphere occurs mainly as a result of continuous oscillations (fluctuations) of air density at each point of the atmosphere caused by the formation and destruction of some "clusters" (clots) of atmospheric gas molecules. Sunny radiation also dispel particles of aerosol. The scattering intensity is characterized by the scattering coefficient.

K \u003d Add a formula.

The scattering intensity depends on the amount of scattering particles in a unit of volume, on their size and nature, as well as on the wavelengths of the most dispersed radiation.

Rays dissipate the stronger than the smallest wavelength. For example, purple rays are scattered 14 times stronger than red, this explains the blue sky. As noted above (see Section 2.2), direct solar radiation, passing through the atmosphere, partially dissipated. In pure and dry air, the intensity of the coefficient of molecular scattering is subject to the law of the relay:

k \u003d C /Y.4 ,

where C is a coefficient depending on the number of gas molecules per unit volume; X is the length of the scattered wave.

Since the length of the distant waves of red light is almost twice as much as the wavelength of purple light, the first is scattered with air molecules 14 times less than the second. Since the initial energy (before scattering) purple rays is less than blue and blue, then the maximum energy in the scattered light (scattered solar radiation) shifts on the blue-blue rays, which causes the blue sky. Thus, scattered radiation is becoming more rich in photosynthetically active rays than straight.

In the air containing impurities (small droplets of water, ice crystalline, dust, etc.), scattering is equally for all sections of visible radiation. Therefore, the sky acquires a whiskest hue (a haze appears). Cloud elements (large droplets and crystals) do not dissipate the sun's rays at all, and they diffuse them. As a result, the clouds lit by the sun are white.

5. Headlights (photosynthetically active radiation)

Photosynthetically active radiation. In the process of photosynthesis, not the entire spectrum of solar radiation is used, but only it

a part that is in the wavelength range of 0.38 ... 0.71 microns, - photosynthetically active radiation (headlights).

It is known that the visible radiation perceived by the human eye as white color consists of colored rays: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, blue and purple.

The absorption of solar radiation energy by the leaves of plants is selectively (selectively). The most intense leaves absorb blue-purple (x \u003d 0.48 ... 0.40 μm) and orange-red (x \u003d 0.68 microns) rays, less - yellow-green (A. \u003d 0.58 ... 0.50 μm) and distant red (A.\u003e 0.69 μm) rays.

The earth's surface has a maximum energy in the direct solar radiation spectrum, when the sun is high, falls on the region of yellow-green rays (yellow dial). When the sun is located at the horizon, the maximum energy has long-range red rays (the solar disc is red). Therefore, the energy of direct sunlight is little involved in the process of photosynthesis.

Since the headlights are one of the most important factors of the productivity of agricultural plants, information on the number of incoming headlamps, accounting for its distribution over the territory and in time is of great practical importance.

The intensity of the headlights can be measured, but for this requires special light filters that transmit only waves in the range of 0.38 ... 0.71 microns. Such devices are, but they do not apply them on the network of actinometric stations, and the intensity of the integral spectrum of solar radiation is measured. Headlights can be calculated according to data on the arrival of direct, scattered or total radiation using the coefficients proposed, X. G. Tooming and:

QFAR \u003d 0.43. S."+0.57 D);

maps of distribution of monthly and annual amounts of headlights in Russia are compiled.

To characterize the degree of use of crops of headlights, use the beneficial use of headlights:

CPIFAR \u003d (sumQ./ headlights / sumQ./ headlights) 100%,

where sumQ./ far - the amount of headlights spent on photosynthesis for the season of vegetation of plants; sumQ./ far - the amount of headlights arriving at sowing during this period;

Sowings on their average values \u200b\u200bof the CPIFAR are divided into groups (software): commonly observed - 0.5 ... 1.5%; good-1.5 ... 3.0; Record - 3.5 ... 5.0; Theoretically possible - 6.0 ... 8.0%.

6. Radiation Balance of the Earth Surface

The difference between the coming and exhaust flows of radiant energy is called the Radiation Balance of the Ground Surface (B).

The arrival part of the Radiation Balance of the Ground Surface during the day consists of direct solar and scattered radiation, as well as radiation of the atmosphere. The expenditure part of the balance is the radiation of the earth's surface and reflected solar radiation:

B.= S. / + D.+ EA.- E3-RK

The equation can be recorded in another form: B. = Q.- RK - EEF.

For night time, the radiation balance equation has the following form:

B \u003d EA - E3, or B \u003d -EEF.

If the arrival of radiation is greater than the flow, then the radiation balance is a positive and active surface * heats up. With a negative balance, it is cooled. In the summer, the radiation balance is positive during the day, and at night - negative. The transition through zero occurs in the morning about 1 hour after sunrise, and in the evening for 1 ... 2 hours before sunset.

Annual radiation balance in areas where stable snow cover is established, during the cold season has negative values, in warm - positive.

The radiation balance of the earth surface significantly affects the temperature distribution in the soil and the surface layer of the atmosphere, as well as the processes of evaporation and snowing, the formation of fogs and frosts, the change in the properties of the air masses (their transformation).

Knowledge of the radiation regime of agricultural land allows you to calculate the amount of radiation absorbed by crops and soil depending on the height of the Sun, the structure of the sowing, the phase of plant development. Data on the mode is necessary for the assessment of different methods for regulating the temperature and humidity of the soil, evaporation, on which the growth and development of plants depend on the formation of the harvest, its quantity and quality.

Effective agronomic techniques for the impact on radiation, and therefore, on the thermal regime of the activity surface is mulching (soil coating with a thin layer of peat crumb, overwhelming, wood sawdust, etc.), soil shelter by polyethylene film, irrigation. All this changes the reflective and absorption capacity of the active surface.

* The active surface is the surface of the soil, water or vegetation, which directly absorbs solar and atmospheric radiation and gives radiation into the atmosphere than adjusts the thermal mode of adjacent air layers and underlying layers of soil, water, vegetation.

On the upper limit of the atmosphere flows solar energy equal to 100%.

Ultraviolet radiation, a component of 3% of 100% incoming sunlight, mostly absorbed by the ozone layer at the top of the atmosphere.

About 40% of the remaining 97% interact with the clouds - of which 24% is reflected back into space, 2% is absorbed by the clouds and 14% dissipates, reaching the earth's surface as a scattered radiation.

32% of the incoming radiation interacts with water vapor, dust and haze in the atmosphere - 13% of them is absorbed, 7% is reflected back into space and 12% reaches the earth's surface as a scattered sunlight (Fig. 6)

Fig. 6. Radiation Balance of Earth

Consequently, from the initial 100% solar radiation of the surface of the Earth reaches 2% of direct sunlight and 26% of the scattered light.

From this total, 4% is reflected from the earth's surface back into space, and the total reflection into space is 35% of the incident sunlight.

Of the 65% of the light absorbed by the Earth, 3% falls on the upper layers of the atmosphere, 15% - on the lower layers of the atmosphere and 47% - to the surface of the Earth - the ocean and land.

In order for the land to retain thermal equilibrium, 47% of all solar energy, which passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the land and sea, should be given to the land and sea back to the atmosphere.

The visible part of the radiation spectrum arriving on the surface of the ocean and creating the illumination consists of sunlights that have passed through the atmosphere (direct radiation), and some part of the rays scattered by the atmosphere in all directions, including the surface of the ocean (scattered radiation).

The ratio of the energy of these two light fluxes falling on the horizontal rig depends on the height of the Sun - the higher it above the horizon, the greater the proportion of direct radiation

The illumination of the sea surface in natural conditions also depends on the cloudiness. High and thin clouds are discarded down a lot of scattered light, thanks to which the illumination of the sea surface at the middle heights of the Sun can be even greater than with a cloudless sky. Dense, raindrops sharply reduce illumination.

Light rays, creating the illumination of the sea surface, are reflected on the border of water-air reflection and refraction (Fig. 7) according to the well-known physical law of Snellius.

Fig. 7. Reflection and refraction of the beam of light on the surface of the ocean

Thus, all light rays falling on the surface of the sea, partially reflecting, refracted and enter the sea.

The relationship between refractive and reflected light flows depends on the height of the sun. With the height of the Sun 0 0, the entire light stream is reflected from the sea surface. With an increase in the height of the Sun, the share of the light flux penetrating into the water increases, and at the height of the Sun 90 0 in the water penetrates 98% of the total flux falling on the surface.

The attitude of the light flux reflected from the sea surface is called, called albedo sea surface . Then the albedo of the sea surface at the height of the Sun 90 0 will be 2%, and for 0 0 - 100%. Albedo of the sea surface is different for direct and scattered light streams. Albedo direct radiation depends substantially on the height of the Sun, the albedo of multiple radiation is practically independent of the height of the Sun.

1. What is the islands died out of the Dream bird?

Mauritius

Comorese

Seychelles

Maldives

2. What is the island observed the greatest surface temperature of the World Ocean?

Socotra

New. Britannia

Canary O-Wa

3. Which of the specified languages \u200b\u200bis not related to the remaining three?

Danish

Norwegian

Finnish

Swedish

4. What proportion of sunlight is absorbed by the surface of the earth?

5. Which of the specified goods is not an article of commercial export of Ghana?

Cocoa beans

Wood

6. In which of the lower French cities, there is a smallest amount of precipitation in July - August?

Marseilles

7. When did Pangea lather?

10 million years ago

50 million years ago

250 million years ago

500 million years ago

8. On Akom Island is the Maison Volcano?

Mindao

Kalimantan

9. Which of these statements most accurately describes the location of Sofia?

In the Danube pool

In the Balkan Mountains

In Rhodopahs

On the Black Sea

10. In which city is OPEC headquarters?

Brussels

Strasbourg

11. In which historical region of Romania, most people make up Hungarians?

Valahia

Moldova

Dobrudazha

Transylvania

12. What sea pool is the stock of Lake Baikal?

Laptev

East Siberian

Beringovo

Karso

13. For what reason the size of the former island of revival increased almost twice as compared with 1950?

River nanos

Increased area of \u200b\u200bglaciers

Falling water level

Artificial bulk work

14. What is the name of the slate, hot, drying the area of \u200b\u200bArgentina, exposed in the summer of strong floods?

Gran Choo.

Entre Rios.

Patagonia

15. In which part of India, peoples who spell in Dravidian languages \u200b\u200blive?

Northwest

Northeast

16. In which city, the airport was recently renamed them. Chan Kaishi

Hong Kong

17. In which of Canada's provinces recently began the development of oil-bearing sands?

Ontario

Alberta

British Columbia.

18. Which of the specified channels does not have gateways?

Kielsky

Panamanian

River Path of St. Lawrence

Suezky

19. In Naiathl, the descendants of the people who built the majestic cities and temples in Mexico speak. What kind of people are it?

Olmeca

20. Which of the specified cities is Basque in the country?

Guadalajara

Barcelona

Bilbao.

21. In which province of China lives the greatest number of people?

Shandong

Sichuan

22. Which countries have joined the UN after 2005?

Montenegro

Montenegro and East Timor

Montenegro, East Timor and Eritrea

23. What part of the UK is the least tightly populated?

Scotland

Northern Ireland

24. In which city, standing on the shores of Vistula, the historic center is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List?

Katowice.

Poznan.

25. In what area of \u200b\u200bgeography showed himself to Abraham Orteli?

Oceanology

Meteorology

Geology

Cartography

26. What is the main achievement of Martina Behaima?

First in the world printed map

The world's first globe

Equifricular projection

Compilation of Encyclopedia of Ancient Knowledge

27. In which country is the largest number of internal refugees?

Croatia

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Azerbaijan

28. The day belongs to 1 year approximately as 1 degree longitude to:

360 minutes

60 minutes

60 degrees

Equator length

29. In which direction you need to move to get from the point with coordinates of 12 ° S.Sh. 176 ° z.d. to the point with coordinates of 30 ° S.Sh. 174 ° V.D.?

Northeast

Southwest

Northwest

Southeast

30. What is the most young earthy crust?

East African Rift

East Pacific Raising

Canadian Shield

Amazon's pool

31. What movements of tectonic plates are observed in the fault zone of San Andreas?

Collision plates

Sliding plates

Raise and lowering different plates

Horizontal displacement plates in different directions along one axis

32. In which of the specified countries is the migration loss of the population?

Ireland

33. What share of the world's population lives in urban areas?

34. Which of the specified countries is leading in terms of tourist arrivals?

France

Vietnam

35. Which countries do not have access to the world ocean and border only with states, also unpaid to the world Ocean?

Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan and Liechtenstein

Uzbekistan, Liechtenstein and Hungary

Uzbekistan, Liechtenstein, Hungary and Tsar

36. Which of these rocks is metamorphic?

Limestone

Basalt

37. What latitude is the Southern Magnetic Pole?

38. Which of the specified islands has a coral origin?

Hokkaido

Kirithmati.

Seychelles

39. Which of these statements is incorrect to Costa Rica?

Lack of regular army

High literacy

High proportion of indigenous population

High proportion of white population

40. Why is the cylindrical projection of the merard of a mercator can not be used for topographic calculations?

Are distorted areas of objects at the equator

Are distorted areas of objects in high latitudes

Corners are distorted

The degree grid is distorted

41. What states lead a territorial dispute about the border passing at 22 ° S.Sh.?

India and Pakistan

USA and Canada

Egypt and Sudan

Namibia and Angola.

42. Which countries have recently stopped the dispute relative to the rich oil of the Bakassi Peninsula?

Nigeria and Cameroon

DRC and Angola

Gabon and Cameroon

Guinea and Sierra Leone

43. Which of the specified maps maps does the locality displays the most detailed?

44. What is the density of the population of Singapore?

3543 people / km 2

6573 people / km 2

7350 people / km 2

9433 people / km 2

45. What is the share of the four most populated countries in the population of the Earth?

46. \u200b\u200bWhat climatic belts do you cross when traveling from Darwin to Alice Springs?

Moderate Sea, Sub Equatorial Wet, Sub Escavatorial Dry, Tropical Dry

Sub-screen Dry, tropical dry, tropical deserted

Sub-screen wet, subequatorial dry, tropical dry

Sub-screen wet, subequatorial dry, tropical dry, tropical deserted

47. What condition can get rid of the influence of typhoons?

Finding at the equator

Finding on the northern latitude of 15 °

Finding over the sea

Finding in the tropics

48. When is the greatest water level in the Zambezi River?

49. What is the reason for the black and red color of the water in the influx of Amazon Rio-Nehru?

Industrial water pollution in the river

Tubils contained in plant pamper

Mountain breeds from Andes

Water erosion of equatorial soils

50. Point with coordinates 18 ° Yu.Sh. 176 ° z.d. Located on the islands:

Carolinsky

Society

Hawaiian

From the list below, select 5 with the highest fertility coefficient and place these countries in descending order of its value:

Israel

Guatemala

Spain

From the list below, select 5 with the largest coastline long and place in descending order of its value:

Malaysia

Australia

Ukraine

Indonesia

Venezuela

Brazil

Bangladesh

Costa Rica

On the contour map, mark the 5th most populated countries in South America.

On the contour map, mark 5 African countries with the highest outflow of refugees.

Answers

1 - Mauritius

2 - Socotra

3 - Finnish

4 - about 50%

6 - Marseille

7 - closest to the likely answer "250 million years ago."

9 - The word formulation cannot be recognized correct. The option "in the Danube pool" is completely faithful, but not accurate: such a definition of the position does not lead the focus on Sofia. The option "in the Balkan Mountains" more accurately indicates a location, but in itself the concept of "Balkan Mountains" is vague.

11 - Transylvania

12 - Karso

13 - Water drop

14 - Patagonia

16 - Taipei

17 - Alberta

18 - Suezky

19 - Azteci

20 - Bilbao

21 - Sichuan

22 - Montenegro

23 - Scotland

24 - Krakow

25 - cartography

26 - Globe

27 - Bosnia and Herzegovina

28 - Equator length

29 - northwest

30 - East Pacific Raising

31 - horizontal displacement ...

32 - Apparently, Iran refers, although there are no exact data.

33 - 49% (although calculations for 2007 show that citizens are already more than 50%).

34 - France

35 - Uzbekistan and Liechtenstein

36 - marble

38 - Kirityatimi

39 - Lack of regular army. However, other signs cannot be rejected, because The meaning of the word "high" is not defined. Test incorrect.

40 - distorted areas of objects in high latitudes. But it is not deprived of meaning and the 4th option. Test incorrect.

41 - Egypt and Sudan

42 - Nigeria and Cameroon

44 - 7350. But it is impossible to put such questions.

45 - about 43%

46 - 2nd answer

47 - at the equator

49 - tanning substances

Niger, Egypt, Yemen, South Africa, Laos, Malaysia, Australia, Sweden, Indonesia, Brazil. Task, however, incorrect. The length of the coastline in principle - the value is not measurable. Cm.: K.S. Lazarevich. The length of the coastline // Geography, No. / 2004.

The wording of issues are presented by memory and may differ somewhat from the original: the US National Geographical Society does not issue tasks or participants in the competition or team managers.

The statement that Hungarians make up the majority in transylvania, discusional. Romanian has another point of view on this.

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1 Quests 8 Class Test Round 1. Time at each moment of day the same at points located on one meridian is called: A. Last B. Decree V. Local Summer 2. What kind of geological era such events as the appearance of mammals and birds occurred , the appearance of the first flowering plants, the domination of the gamped plants and reptiles: A. Archean B. Proterozoic V. Paleozoic, Mesozoic 3. What proportion of sunlight is absorbed by the surface of the Earth: A. 10% B. 30% V. 50% G. 70% 4. Which of the tectonic structures is characterized by a younger age: A. Russian Platform V. West Siberian Plate B. Alandanian Shield of the Folded Areas of Kamchatka 5. The most saline sea, washing the shores of Russia? A. Black B. Japanese V. Baltic G. Azov 6. The Northern Sea Route begins from the port: A. Arkhangelsk B. Murmansk V. Saint Petersburg G. Kaliningrad 7. A scientist from Yekaterinburg (IVPoyas) organized a webinar for their colleagues from other regions Russian Omsk (VPoyas), St. Petersburg (IIPoyas) and Barnaul (VIPoyas) at 14 o'clock in Moscow time. For a member of which city, the webinar will begin at 18 o'clock local time: A. From St. Petersburg B. From Yekaterinburg V. from Barnaul from Omsk 8. Specify the marine object, not located off the coast of Russia: A. Strait Bussol V. Kerch Strait B. Gdan Gulf Gulf of Riga Bay 9. Which of the listed cities are located on the Volga River: A. Penza, Togliatti V. Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov B. Cheboksary, Yoshkar-Ola G. Kazan, Ulyanovsk 10. Select a response option, In which the listed grills towards one language group: A. Buryats, Kalmyki, Khakasi V. Bashkira, Chuvashi, Tatars B. Chechens, Ingush, Adygei Mordva, Udmurts, Kumyki 11. What kind of relief forms like Ras and Kama have such origins: A. Tectonic V. Karstova B. Glacial G. Eoloye 1

2 12. The reserves of this mineral natural resource in the Kaliningrad region are estimated by more than 3 billion tons, explored 281 deposits. It is mainly carried out mainly in Nesterovsky and Polessian regions of the region. Its calorific value reaches 5,000 kcal, although since 1982 the use of it as fuel is prohibited by law. This resource is supplied to many European countries. A. Torph B. Yantar V. Ga G. Gorry Slanets 13. During one of the speeches, the scientist geographer V.V. Dokuchaev said: "I apologize, which is somewhat longer than expected, stopped on .., but this is because the last for Russia is more expensive than any oil, all of stone coal, more expensive gold and iron ores; In it, a vectorless inexhaustible Russian wealth. " What V.V. said Dokuchaev? A. Forest B. Chernozem V. Gas Ocean 14. Specify the term that designate this definition "Large departments of the geographic shell with a certain combination of temperature conditions and moisture regime, which are classified mainly on the prevailing type of vegetation and naturally change on the plains with north to south, and in the mountains from foot to the tops ": A. Natural and economic complexes V. Geographic areas B. Natural zones of Landscapes 15. What natural phenomenon is in the story of I. Ryabtseva" Steppe Divo ". "Now the second week in the steppe ruined the July, the most burning, the most merciless. He licked shallow-water robust to the bottom, dispersed somewhere animals and birds. Slothed herbs with a crunch broke under their feet, scattering in a duch; Naked land was excised in deep cracks, in which snakes, lizards and spiders were selected. Wherever you look, everywhere two colors: ash yellow and brown. On this gloomy background, deceptively gladly gaze, antiflower bushes of camel spines were scattered with aquamarine strokes - the only plant in which life was still warm. Sparking under the sun, then there, then here sugar-white lathes lies salt, speaking on the dead shoulders. This is beautiful and at the same time terrible sight "A. Bora B. Fen V. Sukhovy Samum 16. The atmospheric vortex is huge (from hundreds to several thousand kilometers) with reduced air pressure in the center. Air circulates counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in South A. Tornado B. Cyclone V. Anticyclone G. Tornado 17. Specify an answer option in which all rivers belong to one river system A. Don, Voronezh, Oka V. Volga, Kama, Svir B. Amur, Argun, Shilka Ob, Irtysh, Khatanga 18. What natural resource unites the following deposits: Shtokman, Bear, Polar, Astrakhansky. A. Oil V. GAZ B. Stone Coal G. Potash Salt 2

3 19. Determine what Russian peninsulas are characterized by the following climatic features: A. Climate is very cold, sharply continental. The average temperature in January t minus º C, and in July º. Spring begins in mid-June, and in August, the average daily temperature drops below zero. Precipitation from 120 to 140 mm per year. The eastern part of the peninsula is completely covered with a glacier. B. Climate Sea, in the West is more severe than in the East. Annual precipitation from 600 to 1100 mm. The highest parts of the mountains are contemporary glaciers. One of the bright features of the Peninsula climate is strong winds, hurricanes and storms in all areas of the region., In the winter months, the winds are blowing over 6 points m / s. B. One of the most "warm" regions of the subarctic belt of the Earth. In the northern part of the peninsula warmer than in the southern, due to the influence of a warm current. The average temperature in winter from-9ºС on the coast, to -13 ° C in the center of the peninsula. The grouper period lasts an average of 120 days in a narrow coastal sushi strip, shortened as it removes from the seas to 60 days, and on the tops of the mountain range, the temperature does not fall below 0 ° C less than 40 days a year. 1. Kamchatka pens 2. Kola P-OB 3. Taimyr 20 ps. What is the example of rational environmental management? A. Creating Forest Passion Proceeds in the Steppe Zone B. Drainage of the swamps in the upper reaches of the rivers B. Translation of TPP from natural gas for coal G. Longitudinal disintegration of the slopes 21. Preparing advertising avenue for a tourist company, the artist tried to portray a variety of exotic corners of the globe. Find two artist errors. A. Peruvanes leads Lama B. Tuareg manages the harness of the northern deer V. Tapet rolling tourists on Yak Hindustan plows the field on Buvolo 22. Stormy madhekimy stream, often occurring at the end of the glacier with strong rains or with intensive snow melting, moving along the slope and Carrying with me a mass of stones. This is: A. Wheel B. Flood V. Sel. Morane 23. When did the Pangea latch declined? A. 10 million years ago B. 50 MAIL YEARS REGENT B. 250 million years ago G. 500 million years ago 24. In 1831, the English polar explorer John Ross made the opening in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and 10 years later his nephew James Ross reached his antipode in Antarctica. What kind of opening are we talking about? A. North Magnetic Pole B. Northern Polar Circle B. Southern Magnetic Pole G. Northern Geographical Plus 3

4 25. Install the correspondence: Mountain Top - Country 1. Tubkal A. Inda A. Russia 2. Akonkagua B. Atlas b. USA 3. Elbrus V. Cordillera in. Argentina 4. Mac-Kinley K. Caucasus G. Morocco 26. Monsoon rains often cause floods on rivers: A. Ob, Indigirika B. Rhine, Vistula V. Danube, Yenisei G. Yangtze, Amur 27. Which country is located on different countries continent? A. Kazakhstan V. Egypt B. Turkey; G. Russia 28. Install the compliance of the proposed concepts, various areas of the Earth 1. Black smokers A. Litosphere 2. Galo B. Hydrosphere 3. El Niño V. Biosphere 4. Netcast atmosphere 29. Choose a lake with minimal saline. A. Bodenskoye B. Aralska V. Caspian Balkhash 30. What devices do not belong to meteorological: A. Barkographer B. B. Hygrometer D. Kurvimeter V. Heliographer E. Anemometer J. Neoscope Blank Responses Answer Answer Answer Maximum Number of Points 40. 4.

5 8 CLASS Analytical Round Task 1. To perform the task, use a topographic map. 1) Determine the scale of the card, if the distance from point A to the point B is 900 m. The answer is recorded in the form of a numerical and named scale 2) Determine the azimuth and direction by which you need to go from school to the well. What distance should I go through? 3) Determine the amplitude of the absolute heights of this area 4) in which direction the p. Squirrel? 5) Evaluate which of the venues marked on the map number 1 and 2, it is better to choose to build a wind power plant designed for emergency energy supply to the school in the village of the top. Give at least two arguments. Maximum number of points 13. 5

6 Task 2. At the proposed fragments of cosmic shots, determine the origin of the Lakeskotin. Give examples of lakes or distribution areas. The answer is recorded in the table number of the cosmic snapshot The origin of the lake loop Maximum number of points 10. Example of a lake or distribution area Task 3. Set the definitions of geographic phenomena and name the mainstream (or parts of the world) on which these phenomena are observed. A. Pororow B. Mistral V. Kum. Skrabb D. Atoll 1. Thickets of low-speed evergreen xerophytic shrubs in the tropics and subtropics. 2. Ring-shaped coral island in the form of a narrow ridge surrounding a shallow lagoon. 3. Tidal wave moving away from the mouth upstream of the river 4. The sandy desert 5. Cold Northwest wind blowing on the southern coast of the country called the Cote d'Azur. Answers write to the table. Phenomenon Number of determination of the mainland or part of the light 6

7 A b c D Maximum number of points 10. Task 4. There are cities on Earth, where in January people do not need fur coats, fur caps and gloves. From the list, select those cities whose residents in January do not need winter clothes. Why was it so lucky to residents of each of the cities you have chosen? Luanda, Managua, Cairo, Stockholm, Bucharest Answer: Maximum number of points 6. Task 5. Guys - Finns from a small village located near the Northern Polar Circle, wanted to correspond with schoolchildren from other countries living with them on one parallel. They sent letters to Russia, Canada, Sweden. Which countries guys have forgotten to write? What types of transport can be delivered to the letter there? Answer: Maximum scores 6. Task 6. Fill in passing in the geographical description of the Nizhny Novgorod region. The Nizhny Novgorod region is located in the middle lane of Russia, on (1) plain, in natural zones (2), (3), (4). In the relief of the region, funnels, caves, lakes (5) of origin are common. The area lies within (6) the climatic belt. The main water arteries are four rivers (7, 8, 9, 10) relating to the pool (11) of the sea. In the north of the region, zonalny are (12) soil, and in the southeast (13) soils are common. The most ancient city of the Nizhny Novgorod region (14) stands on the left bank of the Volga and is famous for folk crafts. And in the city of Semenov, 300-year-old traditions of folk art fishery (15) are continued .. Maximum number of points 15. Answer:

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Demonstration option for intermediate certification for grade 8 in geography Instructions for performing tasks for test work is given 45 minutes. The final control test consists of 20 tasks.

Questions Geography Grade 8 1. Indicate the approximate area of \u200b\u200bRussia: 1) 14 million square meters. km 2) 20 million square meters. km 3) 17 million square meters. km 4) 23 million square meters. KM 2. Name the state having a land border with Russia: 1) Finland

Municipal budgetary educational institution "Secondary School 1 G. Soviet" demo measurement materials for intermediate geography certification,

Tasks School Stage of the All-Russian Olympiad of Schoolchildren in Geography 1. Test Round. Grade 8 in each of the proposed questions, select one correct answer option. Answers write in the answer form.

Final testing of geography 8 class Nature and population 1 Option 1 What approval is correct? A. Russia is located east of 19 Eastern longitude B. Russia has land borders

2012 Year All-Russian Olympiad Schoolchildren in Geography Municipal Stage Grade 8 The class of the Olympiad in geography includes the tasks of two rounds of test and analytical. Maximum number of points for the right

Test round 1. The first round trip performed an expedition: a) Spanish b) Portuguese c) English d) Russian 2. The angle of inclination of the earth's axis to the orbit plane is: a) 0 0 b) 33.5

Mountain description plan 1. Name. 2. Geographical position (mainland, country) 3. The age of the mountains. 4. Direction of mountain ranges, steepness of the slopes. 5. Full length kilometers (using scale) 6. Prevailing

Monitoring on geography Grade 8 VIEW FI class Answers 1 6 11 16 21 2 7 12 17 22 3 8 13 18 23 4 9 14 19 24 5 10 15 20 25 Result 1. Area of \u200b\u200bRussia is: a) 17.1 million km² b) 24.2 million km² C)

Final testing of grade 8 students. A1 What direction corresponds to the direction and in the map of the European part of Russia? 1) North 2) Northeast 3) Southeast 4) East A2 Which seas are related

Class X (..) Dear student! Welcome to your participation in the Republican Olympiad on geography -o year and confident that your enthusiasm, creativity and knowledge of the material on geography will provide the opportunity

Surname, name (FULL) Date 2014. Part 1 To each of the tasks 1 10, four answers are given, of which only one is correct. Room of this Answer Druel Mug Instructions for performing the work

Municipal general educational institution Secondary school 57 Examination on geography Grade 8 compiler: Teacher of geography I category Usoltseva O.G. Tyumen, 2008 Option

Instructions for performing work on the performance of work is given 1 lesson (45 minutes). The work consists of 2 parts and includes 20 tasks. Part 1 includes 10 tasks with a choice of response option. Carefully

The nature of the earth and man 1) Which of the listed rocks by origin is igneous? 1) marble 2) limestone 3) sandstone 4) granite 4 2) volcanic origin have (whether) 1) island

Examination tickets, Geography, 8th grade Ticket 1 1.Gogographic position of Russia. Borders. Comparison of the geographical position of Russia with the situation of other countries. Determine the coordinates of extreme points

General requirements of the program for incoming. Geography on the geography examination entering the Higher Educational Institution should: freely navigate the cards of physical, socio-economic, political;

Cipher work: Municipal stage of the All-Russian Geography Olympiad 2012 Dear participants of the Olympiad! Time to perform the tasks of the theoretical round of 45 minutes, analytic 1.5 hours. Using

Final testing of grade 8 students. A1 What direction corresponds to the direction and in the map of the European part of Russia? 1) North 2) Northeast 3) East 4) Southeast A2 Which seas are related

Demonstration option of test work on geography (grade 8) Part 1 Part 1 contains 29 tasks with a response choice. Each task is given four answers, only one of which is correct.

Development of the transferable exam in the 8th grade in geography (used instructions of the FIPI) 1. On which peninsula is the extreme northern continuity of Russia? 1) Kola 2) Taimyr 3) Yamal 4) Chukotsky 2.F.P.

Last name class, name (FULL) Date 2015 Part 1 To each of the tasks 1 10 there are four answers, from which only one is correct. Instructions for performing work on the execution of the test on geography

1 Natural and economic zoning of Russia. Regions of Russia answers to tasks are the word, phrase, number or sequence of words, numbers. Write down the answer without gaps, commas and other

MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL EDUCATION COMMUNICATION OF POMBANDINSKY MEDIUM SUBSCRIBUTION SCHOOLMI NAME Chistaleeva claims: Director MOU Pomolandinskaya Sosh N.T. Chistalee F.E. Lindt Customize Measuring

Practical work 1 Analysis of the tectonic and physical maps of the world: the establishment of links between the geological structure and form of relief is the goal of the work: consolidate the concepts of "platform" and "relief shape", get

Task 14. 1. For the nature of the Kola Peninsula, it is characteristic of 1) the presence of active volcanoes 2) the absence of swamps 3) the predominance of taiga vegetation 4) the absence of many years of permits 2. For what area

Theoretical part of the "Lithosphere" 1. Mountain breeds formed from molten magma are called: a) metamorphic; B) magmatic; C) sedimentary. 2. Earthquakes are: a) sharp

Practical work 1 Analysis of the tectonic and physical maps of the world: the establishment of links between the geological structure, tectonic structures and form of relief is the goal of the work: consolidate the concepts "platform"

Exam tickets on the geography of continigs and oceans (grade 7): Ticket 1. 1. Geographical map: value, types of cards, ways to image the main content of the card. 2. Eurasia: geographical position,

Surname Class - Name Mark the correct answer. Performance time is 90 minutes. Part I. For each correct task, 3 points are accrued. 1. What is the name of the island on which is located

Explanation of a demonstration version of control measuring materials of intra-school monitoring in MOU "SOSH 8" in geography for grade 8. The demonstration option is intended to

Part 1 Instructions for performing work to each of the tasks 1 10 are given an answer version, of which only one is correct. 45 minutes is assigned to the execution of the geography test. Applicant is allowed

Attestation work on geography in the 6th grades is based on the federal state educational standard of basic general education. Purpose: Determining the degree of development of educational

Explanatory note Working program on geography is based on the federal state educational standard of basic general education, exemplary programs for educational subjects

Checking on geography option 1 1. What annual precipitation is characteristic of a sharp continental climate? 1) more than 800 mm per year 2) 600-800 mm per year 3) 500-700 mm per year 4) less than 500 mm

Geography. 7th grade. Demonstration option 1 (90 minutes) 1 Diagnostic thematic work 1 In geography Instructions for performing work on the execution of work on geography is given to 90 minutes. Work

Geography 6 Class Contents of the section (Topics) Planned results of studying of the section (themes) Section "Geographical knowledge of our planet" What is studying geography? Geography methods and importance of science in life

Pomeranian State University named after M.V. Lomonosov Program of Entrance Testing on Geography Arkhangelsk 2011 Exam on Geography is held in writing. On the exam in geography

Points Task 1. Task 2. Task 3. Task 4. Task 5. Result Member Jury Task Municipal Stage All-Russian Olympiad Schoolchildren in Geography 2017-2018 Schooling Year, 10-11 grade time

Option 1 1A. The word "geography" translated from Greek means: a. learning land; in. Description of the Earth; b. Earth measurement; This is not a Greek word at all. 2a. Which of the listed planets is not included

Separating work on geography 7 grade GEF Slicing work 1. Introduction. Geographic shells. Option 1. 1. At the base of the mountains, the mainland crust. 2. The atmosphere is a gaseous sheath of the Earth. 3.

Purchant planning of the course of the physical geography of Russia (8th grade lesson week Theme of the lesson The main content of the lesson is a homework Introduction (1 hour 1 1 (1 What examines the geography of Russia's geography,

Municipal general educational institution Open (replaceable) Secondary school 1 of the city of Iskitima Novosibirsk region Working program on geography for students of grade 8 compiler: Teacher

Land. Full encyclopedia. Ananyva EG, Mirnova S.S. M.: Eksmo, 2007, 256 p. In the book "Earth" from the series "Complete Encyclopedia" tells about the amazing planet on which we live. Readers will meet

Tasks A4 in geography, practice, tasks A4 in geography 1. For which natural zone is characteristic of black soil soils? 1) Mixed Forests 2) Steppe 3) Taiga 4) Big Forest Right Answer 2. Chernozem

The subject results of studying the course "Geography" grade 8 are the following skills: awareness of the role of geography in the knowledge of the surrounding world: - explain the main geographical patterns of interaction

Development of geographical knowledge of Earth. Introduction What studies geography. Representations of the world in antiquity (ancient China, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, ancient Rome). The appearance of the first geographic maps.

Examination of geography grade 6 Option 1 1. The word "geography" translated from Greek means: a. learning land; b. Earth measurement; 2. Which of the listed planets is not included in the planet earth

The list of skills characterizing the achievement of planned results of the development of the main educational program on the study subject "Geography" in grade 6 code Checked skills 1. Section "Hydrosphere

Tests in geography for the final certification of students grade 7 version 1. If there is a low-live structure (platform), then the relief will be: a) the plain; b) Mountain. 2. Litosphere

Geography. 7th grade. Demonstration option 1 (90 minutes) 1 geography. 7th grade. Demonstration option 1 (90 minutes) 2 1 In which direction should move from point A to point in? Diagnostic thematic