The construction of the residence of the Supreme Court has not yet begun. Expressive means of morphology Morphological means

EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF MORPHOLOGY

All the described means of expression have features of linguistic expression. They can be characterized from the point of view of the morphological belonging of the linguistic units participating in its formation. For the completeness of the presentation of both lexical and syntactic means of expressiveness of speech, their morphological characteristics will be useful, which will be based on the ability of individual parts of speech to participate in the creation of an artistic image.

NOUN

The term (name) "noun" is associated with the word "essence" ("being"), which is a participle of the verb "to be", therefore, a noun is that which exists. Remember what a noun means, and answer the question: why is a noun one of the most numerous parts of speech?
The richness of a noun is manifested not only quantitatively, but also qualitatively. Among the nouns we will find words belonging to the most different groups and categories: words new and outdated, professional and dialectal, native Russian and borrowed, bookish, colloquial, official, vernacular, high, etc. Using these words in a work of art, the author can create a general tonality of the text, special expressiveness, emotionality and imagery of speech, can express his attitude to events and characters, create a speech characteristic of the characters.
The word is qualitatively transformed in the literary text, which is manifested in the development of the meaning of the word. There are no random words and syntactic constructions in a literary text. The unity of form and content finds full expression in the artistic image. A miracle occurs in a literary text: the words seem to outgrow themselves, torn into the "kingdom of universal animation and spirituality ... There is" graceful literature ", artistic creativity in its broad sense" (V.A. Markov). The target functions of words are changing: these functions are given by the context.
Tasks:
1. Expressively read the text of KD Ushinsky.

We call our country Fatherland because our fathers and grandfathers lived in it. We call it our homeland because we were born in it, they speak our native language, and everything is native in it. We call her Mother because she fed us with her bread, gave us drink with her waters, learned her language. As a mother, she protects us from our enemies. There are many in the world, besides our country, of all states and lands, but a person has one own mother, one he has and his Motherland.

Determine the theme and main idea of ​​the text. Title it. Think about what helped to correctly define the topic and accurately title the text?
Find keywords in the text. What part of speech are they? What role do they play in the text?

What unites the words "Motherland", "were born", "native"? Continue this row.
Find examples of artistic tropes in the text. What words are used figuratively?
Read the text aloud, highlighting pauses and logical accents in the correct intonation.
Find the most appropriate reading tone and pace.

2. Expressively read the text of B.L. Pasternak. In what mood did you finish reading this passage? What expressive means of speech contribute to the creation of the image of the Motherland in this passage?

Here is a spring evening in the yard. The air is all marked with sounds. The voices of children playing are scattered in places of different distances. And this distance is Russia, its incomparable, overseas sensational, famous parent, martyr, stubborn, madcap, mischievous, idolized, with eternally majestic and disastrous antics that can never be foreseen!
Oh, how sweet it is to exist! How sweet it is to live in the world and love life!

Compare two texts: Ushinsky and Pasternak. What unites these texts and what is the difference? In which of the texts does the personal motive sound stronger?
With what expressive means does Pasternak expand the image of Russia?
Find keywords in the text. What part of speech are they?
Is there any peculiarity in the use of nouns in this text?
Choose a synonym for the words "crazy", "naughty".
What words give the passage a colloquial, confidential character?
Find opposition in the text. Why is antithesis appropriate here?
For what purpose does the author use lexical repetition in the last sentences?
Explain the setting of punctuation marks. Determine if pauses match punctuation marks. What role do exclamation points play in the text? What mood of the author do they convey?

Saturation of the text with nouns can become a means of linguistic depiction. Whisper, timid breath,
Nightingale trills,
Silver and wobble
Sleepy brook

Night light, night shadows
Shadows without end
A series of magical changes
Sweet face

In the smoky clouds, purple roses,
Reflection of amber,
And kissing and tears
And dawn, dawn!

The text does not contain a single verb. But this does not prevent the poet from conveying the dynamics, the movement of life, its rhythm. Dynamism and movement are conveyed by verbal nouns stringing homogeneous members of a sentence in the structure of one sentence. By expressive means of speech, nouns appear in A. Blok's poem.

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,
Pointless and dim light.
Live for at least a quarter of a century-
Everything will be like this. There is no escape.

If you die, you start over again,
And everything will repeat itself as of old:
Night, icy ripples of the canal
Pharmacy, street, lamp.

In this poem, the metaphorical use of nouns evokes a sense of hopelessness in the cycle of life.

The nouns give another emotional coloring, sensually tender, to another poem by A. Blok.

Me and the world - snows, streams,
Sun, songs, stars, birds -
All are subject, all are Yours!

M.Yu. Lermontov in the poem "Leaf", the source of expression is masculine and feminine nouns. An oak leaf is a young plane tree. Behind these images are complex human relationships between masculine and feminine principles in life. The poem acquires an allegorical, symbolic sound. An oak leaf and a young plane tree become keywords in the text.

An oak leaf came off a branch of my dear
And driven into the steppe by a cruel storm;
It withered and withered from cold, heat and grief
And finally he reached the Black Sea.

A young plane tree stands by the Black Sea;
The wind whispers with her, caressing green branches;
The birds of paradise sway on the green branches,
They sing songs about the glory of the sea tsar-maiden ...

Nouns concretize our speech, get rid of poly-words: the one who is devoted to his people, homeland, is called a patriot.
Exercise
Express the definitions below in one word that exactly corresponds to this concept.

1. An active member of some collective, society.
2. One who denies the existence of God.
3. A person who starts an important business.
4. The one who carries the banner.
5. A person who is fighting for something.
6. One who talks to someone.
7. Someone who works with someone else.
8. A person walking the same path with someone.
9. The person in charge of the orchestra, choir.
10. Follower of any views.
11. A person who has the same mindset with someone else.
12. A person who avoids communication with other people.
13. Anyone who prefers to spend his free time at home.
14. Member of the uprising.
15. A writer who creates works for the theater.
16. One who is scheduled for election, appointment, or admission somewhere.
17. A person capable of all kinds of dishonest acts, fraud.
18. A person who spreads false accusations that dishonor others with rumors.
19. The one who flatters pleases those from whom he hopes to gain personal benefit.
20. An employee performing his duties formally, not for the good of the business.
21. The one who cares only about his own well-being, about his personal benefits.
22. A person who lives at the expense of someone else's labor, at someone else's expense.

ADJECTIVE
The term "adjective" in ancient Russian grammars appeared only at the beginning of the 17th century. Prior to this, the name of the adjective was called "adjective". The imposition is associated with the Greek word "epithet" - a literal appendix, that is, what is "attached" to a noun.
Among adjectives, as well as among nouns, words of the most diverse stylistic, expressive, emotional coloring; words differing in scope, etc. The synonymy of adjectives is very rich, with the help of which the most subtle shades of meanings, stylistic and emotional coloring can be conveyed.
Tasks:
1. What shades of meanings differ in the definitions in the following phrases: a) bear den, b) bear paw, c) bear coat, d) bearish walk, e) disservice? What adjectives are used figuratively and expressively?
2. The figurativeness of speech is achieved by the use of adjectives in a figurative sense. They are called epithets - expressive means of speech, tropes from the Greek "tropos" - "image, turn, turn". Neutral colored adjectives can also be expressive means of speech with a certain syntactic structure of sentences, with a certain speech organization of the text.
Find epithets in the following sentences.
1) Bloodless faces, fading eyes, tired voices - the dull indifference of a cold autumn evening ... (MG) 2) ... on each face he read only a dull expression of everyday, vulgar boredom and contentment. Stupid eyes, stupid smiles, harsh, stupid voices, insolent movements - and nothing more ... And his attention focused on one pale, slightly sleepy, tired face ... these, who now danced to the sound of confusion and spoke long and disgusting phrases, it was difficult to find a suitable name. (A.Ch.).
What adjectives (epithets as expressive means of speech) are used figuratively, emotionally colored, and which of them are neutral, common?
3. Write out from the poem separately adjectives - epithets, separately - simple definitions.
And there, when the evening dawn
Wears a pale blush
Mountain peaks, desert snake
From under the stones, frolicking, crawls out;
On it, pockmarked scales shine
With a silver tint, how it shines
Broken sword abandoned by a fighter
In the thick grass on the fatal field.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)

In artistic speech, adjectives most often act as epithets with a figurative meaning, as colorful definitions, pictorial, colorful adjectives, unlike neutral and constant ones, vividly and clearly draw objects and actions and give us the opportunity to see them as -kim they were seen by the writer, creating the work. V. Mayakovsky often used adjectives-neologisms in his work: "hot sidewalk", "fired sand", "Russia, take off with an airy fleet".

4. In S. Yesenin's poem, sort adjectives (qualitative and relative) and epithets (expressively colored, metaphorical and neutral, common). What role do adjectives play in a literary text?
Find metaphors in the text.

Swans and do not look for a trace.

You took me forever.

With scarlet juice of berries on the skin,
Delicate, beautiful, was
You look pink like a sunset
And, like snow, radiant and light.

The grains of your eyes have crumbled, wilted,
The subtle name melted away like a sound
But remained in the folds of a crumpled shawl
The smell of honey from innocent hands.

In a quiet hour, when dawn is on the roof,
Like a kitten, it washes its mouth with its paw,
I hear meek talk about you
Water honeycombs singing with the wind.

Let the blue evening whisper to me sometimes
That you were a song and a dream
All those who invented your flexible body and shoulders -
He put his mouth to the bright secret.

Do not wander, do not wrinkle in the crimson bushes
Swans and do not look for a trace,
With a sheaf of your oat hair
You took me forever.

Memorize the poem. Get ready for expressive reading.

PRONOUN

Stylistically, most pronouns are neutral words. Only a few have a colloquial or bookish stylistic coloring (everyone, such or this, this, some).
Pronouns are substitute words that come on stage as “substitute players” or “stand-ins” when it is necessary to replace “main players”. Yet individual pronouns can add additional expressiveness to a literary text. For example, the pronouns "you" and "you" have an artistic function, defining proximity or a barrier between interlocutors. A narrow-minded, humiliated character of any work, instead of the singular pronoun "he", "she" can use the pronoun "they".
Exercise
Expressively read the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's "Death of a Poet". Find pronouns, define their meaning, stylistic coloring. What artistic function do pronouns perform in each specific case?

And you arrogant descendants
The famous villainy of the glorified fathers,
Fifth slave trampled wreckage
Play the happiness of offended childbirth!
You, a greedy crowd, standing at the throne,
Freedom, Genius and Glory executioners!
You hide under the shade of the law,
Before you is the judgment and the truth - all be silent! ..
But there is also God's judgment, confidants of debauchery!
There is a formidable judge: he is waiting;
He is not available to the ringing of gold,
He knows both thoughts and deeds in advance.
Then in vain will you resort to backbiting:
It won't help you again
And you won't wash away with all your black blood
Righteous blood poet!
(M.Yu. Lermontov)

Homework:
Memorize the poem by S. Yesenin "Kachalov's Dog".
Read it emphatically. Determine the stylistic function of the pronouns in this poem.

The term "verb" means "speech", "word", originated in the Old Church Slavonic language as a translation from Greek. The verb is one of the richest and most significant parts of speech. Many linguists and writers have written about the expressive possibilities of the verb. For example, A.N. Tolstoy: "Movement and its expression - the verb - are the basis of the language, finding the correct verb for a phrase means giving movement to the phrase." A. Yusov considered the verb "the most fire-breathing and most lively part of speech." In his opinion, "the most scarlet, freshest, arterial blood of the language flows in the verb." Yu. Bondarev noted its "effective character" in the verb. The verb in all the richness of its semantics, with its characteristic meanings of grammatical forms and the possibilities of syntactic connections, with a variety of stylistic methods of figurative use, is an inexhaustible source of expression, ”writes I.B. Golub. “The main merit of the verb,” according to the Russian linguist A.M. Peshkovsky, - the ability to manage; to build around themselves a long line of various and consequently dependent on each other words and sentences. " A wonderful material on the verb as an expressive means was selected by E.V. Lyubicheva and NG Olkhovik in the book "Through the word I create the world."
Verbal synonymy is rich. Many verbs - synonyms differ in stylistic characteristics. Verbs with prefixes ending in -з, -с are Old Slavonic in origin, have a bookish character, have a tinge of solemnity, uplifting style. A special role in a work of art can be played by synonymy of verb forms: types, tenses, moods, personal forms, etc. For example, single and multiple verbs have a colloquial tone. Additional expression is introduced by the use of the forms of one person of the verb in the meaning of another. The use of the second person instead of the first one gives the statement a generalizing meaning. There are numerous cases of using forms of one time instead of another in artistic speech.
Verbs, like many other significant parts of speech, are used to construct many stylistic figures and tropes. The most frequently used verbs in the composition of metaphors, personifications, oppositions, gradations, oxymorons, etc. Allegorical verbal phrases (the moon has risen; snow is lying; spring has come; the wind is howling) have become so firmly embedded in our language that their metaphorical allegory is already not felt. The infinitive also has rich metaphorical possibilities. Its expression is due to the fact that, giving the minimum grammatical information, it most fully expresses the lexical meaning, calls the action as an abstract concept. Gives the statement a touch of generalization and "all-embracing" in time. For example:
If you love, so without reason,
Kohl threaten, so in earnest,
Kohl swear, so rashly,
Kohl hack, so from the shoulder!
If you argue, it's so bold
Kohl punish, so for the cause,
If you forgive, so with all your soul,
If there is a feast, so a feast in the mountains.
(D.N. Tolstoy)
The abundance of verbs, verbal forms (participles, participles) usually distinguishes the narrative from the description, in which the main expressive means of speech are nouns and adjectives.
Exercise
Compare two texts, descriptive and narrative.
1. We rode our boat; in front of us, a net in the sky were earrings, flowers of undressed trees: alder earrings, yellow early willow chicks and various other buds and large, half-open bird cherry buds. How graceful and how bashful these branches of undressed trees seem to be better than shy girls!
In the undressed forest, in late spring, everything was visible through and through: the nests of different birds, the singing birds themselves, nightingales with gurgling necks, finches, songbirds, forest pigeons are visible. And the cuckoo crowed in plain sight, and the black grouse walked, toying, on the branch, muttering.
In some places, hops completely wrapped around alder and bird cherry, and one green branch, making its way from under the hops, old, last year, looked like Laocoon entwined with snakes (M. Prishv.). (Laocoon is a Trojan priest strangled by snakes for trying to save Troy.)
2. Autumn, autumn - the wind whistles from the sea and furiously drives foaming waves to the shore, - in the white manes black ribbons of algae flicker like snakes, and the air is saturated with moist, salty dust.
Coastal stones hum angrily; the dry rustle of trees is alarming, they swing tops, bend as if they want to pluck roots from the ground and run into the mountains, dressed in a heavy fur coat of dark clouds.
Above the sea, the clouds are torn to shreds and rush to the ground, revealing the bottomless blue abyss, where the autumn sun is restlessly burning. Shadows glide over the dug sea; on the ground, the wind presses the clouds to the sides of the mountains, the clouds wearily crawl up and down, get into the gorges and smoke smoky there.
Everything around is frowned, argues with each other, darkens angrily and glistens coldly, blinding the eyes; along a narrow road, covered from the sea by a ridge of stones caressed by waves, the leaves of plane trees, black maple, oak, cherry plum run chasing each other. Splash, rustle, whistle - everything boiled into one continuous sound, you listen to it like a song, the uniform blows of waves against stones sound like rhymes. (M. Gorky)
Let's look for key words in the texts and make sure that in the first, descriptive version, the expressive means of speech as tropes are adjectives as common or metaphorical signs of objects. In the olimation of nature in the first text, adjectives are involved, in the second - glagos. In the first text, the calm static nature of nature in anticipation of changes, in the second - the dynamics of action, nature is shown in impetuous movement. An expressive means of speech, the personification of nature, are verbs and verbal forms. (In M. Gorky's story, we see how physics participates in the depiction of nature. The abundance of hissing and whistling sounds allows the reader to hear the excitement of nature.)
Tasks:
1. An expressive means of speech can be a verbal play with personal and non-personal verbs. Find personal and impersonal verbs in the following sentences.
1) It is not good to let your comrades down. 2) Such an attitude towards comrades is not good. 3) This thing is inexpensive. 4) This item is worth buying. 5) The horse carries a load of firewood. 6) He is lucky in exams. 7) You should prepare in advance for the trip. 8) The plane follows the route Moscow - Vladivostok. 9) The cookies failed this time. 10) We couldn't meet again. 11) There was something to think about. 12) We had such a decision. 13) The highway was completely deserted. 14) The highway was completely deserted. 15) They used to be sad, but not bored. 16) He was vomited from the seat and thrown into the air, and then nausea ... and vomited. 17) Buckwheat honey was drawn from the fields, and I was drawn to the fields.
2. Expressively read A. Blok's poem "Turned everything into a joke from the beginning." What feelings does the poem evoke? What expressive means of speech is this achieved? Highlight keywords. What part of speech are they? What artistic effect is achieved by using a large number of verbs? What verb indicates that the lyric hero has no return to the past? Are verb forms used in a direct or figurative sense?
Name the combinations of sounds that are persistently repeated in this poem. For what purpose does the poet use them? Why does he use the technique of incompleteness, an open syntactic structure? Read the last sentence. What is the peculiarity of his intonation? Explain the use of punctuation marks in this sentence. Define the artistic function of the question. For what purpose does the author use lexical repetition in this sentence? Find trails in the text. Determine their meaning. Read the poem emphatically.

Turned it all into a joke first
Understood - began to reproach,
She shook her beautiful head
I began to wipe my tears with a handkerchief.
And, teasing with her teeth, she laughed,
Suddenly forgetting everything.
Suddenly I remembered everything - I sobbed,
Dropping ten pins on the table.
Has grown ugly, has gone, has turned around,
I returned, waited for something,
Cursed, turned my back,
And she must have gone forever ...
Well, it's time to get down to business
For his old business -
Is life really noisy,
Has made noise, as your dress.

It is very important to have a culture of speech in everyday communication. There are glago-ly, the use of which in speech requires certain knowledge. There are so-called insufficient verbs that do not have separate personal forms. These include verbs denoting actions that cannot be attributed to the speaker. Try to pronounce in the first person the verbs to spike, bud off, bitter, rust, take away, conclude. Or, for example, to use verbs in the first person that do not have the first person form for phonetic reasons: to hush, feel, find yourself, play, play nonsense, convince, weird, win.
The first person forms of such verbs are used by humorists in their texts. There are abundant verbs that have twofold personal forms. As an expressive means of speech, they are used by homophones with words that sound the same, but have different lexical meaning. Compare verb pairs: rinse - rinse; wiggles, wiggles; clucks - clucks; waving - waving; splashing - splashing; prowls-prowls. In each pair, the book form is in the first place, the colloquial form is in the second. (There is a gray-haired sorceress, shaggy waving her sleeve (GR Derzhavin). The horse wags its tail (ME Saltykov-Shchedrin).

Tasks:
1. Choose the correct version of the use of the verb in literary speech.
Wave - wave, wave; to kill - I will kill, I will kill; grumble - grumble, grumble; honor - honor, honor; get well - get well, get well; splash - splash, splash; rinse - rinses, rinses; loathing - loathing, loathing; disgusted - disgusted, disgusted; pouring - pouring, pouring; pinching - pinching, pinching.

2. Form the past tense from the given verbs. Choose the correct option. Using reference books, find out which of these forms are used in book speech.
Get wet (with emphasis on the second syllable) - got wet, soaked; get wet (with emphasis on the last syllable) - got wet, soaked; freeze - frozen, frozen; shut up - shut up, shut up; go out - went out, went out; dry - dry, you - dry; wither - wither, wither; hang - hang, hang.

3. Choose the correct version of the use of the verb in the given text.
Stump in a neglected forest (ruined, ruined). In the south of the river in drought (dehydrated, dehydrated). In battles, the enemy (weakened, weakened). Wounded soldier (bled, bled). Garden this summer (sterile, sterile). Peasants-nina (landless, landless). A pond near the construction site (deprived, deprived). Apple every day (worm, worm). Executioner of a criminal (beheaded, beheaded). A young man from fear (mad, mad).

PARTICIPLE
The term "participle" is of Old Church Slavonic origin. The word entered the Old Church Slavonic language through the Latin as a literal translation - "participating". The meaning is due to the fact that the participle by its properties "participates" in both the name and the verb.
The participles have a shade of bookishness, they are used, as a rule, in written speech. Many of the participles have a stylistic connotation of solemnity. The participle can be used as an expressive means of speech.
Tasks:
1. Expressively read the text from the novel by Leo Tolstoy "War and Peace", which describes the oak. How did you feel about reading the passage? What picture is being drawn in your imagination? Find the keywords in this snippet. How do you understand the phrase "contemptuous freak"? What did the writer want to emphasize by this? Find the participle in the text. Which ones are used figuratively? What artistic effect is achieved by repeating the sacrament "broken"? Determine its lexical meaning. Read the text expressively, observing the correct intonation.
There was an oak tree at the edge of the road. Probably ten times older than the birches that made up the forest, it was ten times thicker and twice the height of each birch. It was a huge oak, in two girths, with branches that had been broken off for a long time, and with broken off bark, overgrown with old sores. With his huge clumsy, asymmetrically spread out gnarled hands and fingers, he stood between the smiling birch trees as an old, angry and contemptuous ugly creature. Only he alone did not want to submit to the charm of spring and did not want to see either spring or the sun.

2. Determine the expressive role of the participles in the poem by A. Blok.
What other verbal forms are used in the text of the poem? Directly or figuratively?
Singing dream, blooming color
A fading day, a fading light.

Opening the window, I saw a lilac.
It was in the spring - on a flying day.

Flowers breathed - and on the dark cornice
The shadows of the jubilant robes moved.

The longing was choking, the soul was engaged,
I opened the window, trembling and trembling.

And I don’t remember - where did the breath in my face come from,
Singing, burning, she went up the porch.

3. The following text depicts a picture of a storm, the power of the ship, striking the author for the courage and courage of the captain. Why does the author of the story A.S. Green write about the fury of the storm not with adjectives, but with participles? How is expressiveness of speech, imagery achieved?
... Gray saw a huge picture above the door, immediately filling the stuffy stupor of the library with its content. The painting depicted a ship rising to the crest of a sea wall. The crest of the rampart, spread out by a ship's keel, resembled the wings of a giant bird. Foam flew in the air. The sails, vaguely visible from behind the backboard, full of the violent force of the storm, fell back and forth with all their bulk, so that, having crossed the shaft, straighten, and then, bending over the abyss, rush the ship towards new avalanches. Broken clouds fluttered low over the ocean. The dim light usually struggled with the approaching darkness of the night. But the most remarkable thing in this picture was the figure of a man standing on the tank with his back to the viewer. The richness of the suit showed the captain in him ...
Read the text expressively with the desired intonation. Explain the placement of punctuation marks.

4. In the poem by K.D. Balmont's "Howl to the Wind" participles and adjectives with an artistic technique of parallelism provide the structural coherence of the text, draw the fantastic omnipresence of the wind element and express the consonance of the spiritual mood of the lyrical hero of this element.

The harsh wind of my native land,
The buzzing wind among the pines is ringing,
Singing wind between bottomless abysses,
Flying wind of vastness of the steppe.
Keeper of the willows in a fluted spring,
Dreammaster in the longing of sleepless nights,
Storyteller of thoughts and funeral songs,
Rustling wind, hear me, I am yours ...

Read the text expressively. Explain the placement of punctuation marks. Find expressive means of speech and define their artistic function.

IN AND. Dahl, the author of the famous dictionary, gave the following characterization of participles: "The part of speech involved in a verb in the form of an adjective." The participles contain signs of both verbs and adjectives. The combination of signs of different parts of speech in one word makes these words more meaningful and more economical. MV Lomonosov drew attention to the fact that "These verbal names serve to shorten the human word, containing the name and the verb power." Pictures of nature, portrait characteristics, inner experiences of the heroes of literary works are often conveyed by writers using participles. Where pathos, denunciations, solemnity are needed, we will always meet the sacraments. In the poem "Vasily Ter-kin" A. Tvardovsky uses participles in the function of nouns and creates an active heroic image of the Russian people.

Let's remember those retreating with us,
Who fought for a year or an hour,
Fallen, missing,
Who have we met at least once,
Seeing off, meeting again,
For us to drink the water that was given,
Praying for us.

But in common colloquial speech, participles are rare. We replace them with subordinate clauses. The formation of participles is difficult. It depends on the grammatical indicators of the verb. In a small excerpt from the work of V. Belov, we can find all four forms of participles: “Bitter, cheery smoke from the co-strov here and there melted in the clear, imperceptible air ... A flock of starlings flew in from the forest and preparing for their journey sank into the field ... the torn-up church stood out clearly against the calm, autumnal meek sky. "
But if in the indefinite form of the verb the stress falls on -at (-yat) and when forming a participle it does not move to another syllable, then passive past participles cannot be formed from such verbs. The verbs decide, throw, receive, define, compose, explain, apply, etc. do not form such participles. And prefixed verbs with the suffix -iva, (-yva) do not form suffering participles in the past tense.
Intransitive verbs do not have passive participles, and perfective verbs, of course, cannot have present participles. So, the number of participles depends on whether a transitive or intransitive verb, perfect or imperfect, as well as on the stress or unstressed vowel-stem of the indefinite form.
Tasks:
1. Analyze the proposals. Correct any mistakes in the use of participles in speech.

1) The guys who made friends over the summer did not want to leave. 2) Children are running around in the yard. 3) From the window I see a birch tree with crumbling leaves. 4) People who love music will never stop loving it. 5) The name of our company was created from these combination letters. 6) We are not afraid of those who meet difficulties on the way. 7) My most difficult child is the role of Daria. (From the speech of the actress). 8) Stools made by carpenters were brought to the workshop. 9) We met a lot of people walking in the park. 10) From this book we learned about the horrors experienced by our people in the war. 11) He did a lot for his people, giving his life to serve them.
2. Answer the questions:
1) When real and passive participles are mixed in the use of participial expressions. 2) When is the participial phrase used incorrectly instead of the relative clause? 3) Find a sentence in which the participle is in the wrong position in relation to the defined word.

DEPARTMENT

The term "adverbial participle" was introduced into circulation by the author of the first Russian grammar, Meletiy Smotritsky. The word is formed by merging the particle "dee" (from the verb "de-yat" - "to do") and the noun "participle". The gerunds remain mostly bookish words and are used mainly in written speech. Some gerunds have a colloquial character, for example, an adverb with a suf-fix - lice (“Having taken off their hair they don’t cry.”) Such adverbs are often found in Russian folk art. In fiction, they are used to convey the color of folk speech (looking, traveling, walking). For the gerunds, the most typical metaphor, antithesis, gradation, oxymoron. The frequency of gerunds in book speech is due to the specifics of their forms, which make it possible to designate not the main, but a secondary action, show the sequence of several actions, convey simultaneously the meaning of both actions and circumstances, designate an action without indicating a specific time and face. Such qualities of participles contribute to the activation of this form in scientific, official, business and artistic speech. The undoubted merit of the vernacular is brevity and conciseness.
Variant forms of gerunds are associated with the use of modern and outdated forms. The adverbial turnover can appear at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence. The sentence is a stand-alone circumstance. Dee participles and adverbs are very expressive and are widely used in the language of fiction.
Errors of two categories are encountered in the use of gerunds:
1. The construction of an adverbial turnover in an impersonal sentence is not always possible. If they try to do this, an error arises, for example: He (Pecho-rina) has no friends, because, seeing the shortcomings of people, he becomes not interested in communicating with them.
In this case, the adverbial turnover must be replaced by a subordinate clause with the meaning of time.
2. It is unacceptable to construct an adverbial turnover if the actions called an adverbial participle and a predicate verb are performed by different persons or objects, for example: After leaving the circus, money in their hands turned into candy wrappers. (This refers to a session of Woland's black magic from Mikhail Bulgakov's novel "The Master and Margarita")

Tasks:
1. Indicate the mistakes in the formation of gerunds and their use in speech; edit and write down the sentences.
1) In the chess championship, Spassky, meeting with Grand Master Taimanov, won a brilliant victory. 2) The use of these expressions and phrases can be shown by illustrative examples, taking samples of fiction as illustrations. 3) The entire presentation in the book is made extremely short, taking into account the student's time budget. 4) Science is required of such advice, applying which would be useful in practical work. 5) After reading the work for the second time, I think that the main thoughts are expressed in it correctly. 6) Approaching the river, we stopped the horses, quickly jumped to the ground and, hastily undressed, rushed into the water. 7) Using the slide rule, the calculation is quick and easy. 8) Having received a serious wound, the soldier was saved by his comrades. 9) He left after completing his homework and when he finished personal affairs. 10) Hastily dressed and washed, the boy ran to school, but, clinging to something and stumbling, fell.

2. Replace the relative clauses with participles and vice versa; if this cannot be done, indicate the reason for the impossibility of replacement.
1) Since Gorky knew well the life and life of tramps, he could vividly depict them in his works. 2) When we returned home, it was already dark. 3) Eugene Onegin made a strong impression on Tatiana, as he stood out sharply among the neighboring landowners. 4) After the students finished checking the dictation, the teacher took the notebooks from them. 5) When Plyushkin untied all sorts of ligaments, he regaled the guest with such dust that he sneezed. 6) The old carrier was dozing, bending over the oars. 7) Kashtanka, unable to bear the music, moved restlessly in her chair and howled. 8) Customers passed Kashtanka, pushing her with their feet, non-stop back and forth. 9) Without restoring his health, he will not be able to seriously study. 10) Having dismissed the generals, Kutuzov sat for a long time, leaning his elbows on the table.

Conclusions:
1) The adverbial turnover cannot be used if the action expressed by the predicate and the action expressed by the adverbial participle refer to different persons. For example: On my way home, I was caught in the rain.
2) The adverbial turnover cannot be used in an impersonal sentence that has a logical subject, for example: Approaching the forest, I felt cold.
3) The adverbial turnover cannot be used if the sentence is expressed in a passive construction, because the producer of the action expressed by the predicate and the producer of the action expressed by the verb do not coincide, for example: Having climbed up the Volga, the barge will be unloaded on berths of other cities.
4) A pile of verbal participles creates cacophony.

Indicate in which of the sentences the replacement is impossible, because the main sentence is impersonal.
In which sentence is the replacement impossible, since the main and subordinate clauses have different subjects?
In which sentence is it impossible to replace, because the gerunds indicate a course of action?

In the term "participle" we are familiar with the second part of this word. And now we know what the first part of the word means. Turning to the dictionary, we will also see that the term participle appeared in the 17th century and consists of two parts (Dee + participle) and is explained as participation in an action. We made sure that this form of the verb denotes an additional action of the verb in the sentence, and by grammatical signs this form is similar to adverbs, since it does not change. In some grammars, the participle is called a verbal adverb. For example, in E. Asadov's poem "Forest" there is such a quatrain:

Shivering from the fresh breeze
A little blue, sturdy boletus,
Holding hands like guys
Stomp, basking, around the hemp!

Here, one verb is given four participles, which create a vivid picture of the "actions" of the oil in addition to the main action expressed by the verb. Therefore, adverbs, like adverbs, adorn the verb, supplement it with other actions. Are the participles the same? L. Kozyr has a quatrain:
Hills growing and melting at dusk
And some kind of thought melting in the folds,
They are silent about that, that it is not easy at all,
My planet is not an easy one.

In this poem, the gerunds and adjectives create a figure as an expressive means of speech - paronomasia. Homophones, which are formed from different participles, consonant, but formed from different verbs: melt, conceal, grow, become an expressive means of speech.

Exercise
Find the gerunds in the following passages from poems, define their meaning and artistic role.
You are a great swell, you are a sea swell,
Whose holiday are you celebrating?
Waves rush, thundering and sparkling,
Sensitive stars look from above.
(F.I. Tyutchev)

Crying out to the green meadow, listening,
I walk through the rustling foliage.
And the cold month stands, not burning,
A green sickle in the blue.
(A.A. Blok)

Sad and crying and laughing
The streams of my poems are ringing
At your feet
And every verse
Runs, weaves a living ligature,
His not knowing the shores.
(A.A. Blok)

ADVERB

The word "adverb" was already in the Old Russian language. Its meaning as a part of speech was reflected in the dictionary of I.I. Sreznevsky. From an etymological point of view, the speech root is interesting. The word "speech" in the Old Russian language had different meanings, one of the meanings was the name of the part of speech "verb". This meaning is preserved in the root of speech, which is included in the word "adverb" And the connection between the verb and the adverb sa-may is direct. Ancient scholars saw the main content of an adverb in the fact that it should be attached to a verb or "superimposed" on a verb. Linguist A.M. Peshkovsky writes: “If we think about words well, beautifully, cleanly, skillfully, dexterously, quickly, etc., then first of all we note that in them, as in the verb and in the adjective, not objects are depicted, but signs. The signs are the same as in the adjectives good, beautiful, clean, skillful, etc. However, in adverbs they do not appear to us exactly as in adjectives. In adjectives, they belong to objects, and in an adverb, they belong to something that is said about the object. Good - this does not mean that someone is good, but that someone did something well ... If we hear approving or disapproving exclamations, it is good! cleverly! brilliantly! talented! stupid! low! etc., then we immediately understand that this refers to someone's behavior, to some actions of people, and not to the people themselves. This means that here we mentally refer the adverb to the verb without fail, although we do not yet know the verb itself ”. The main feature of an adverb is a sign of action, as the main feature of adjectives is to indicate a sign of an object.
Exercise
Find the keywords in the poem by E. Kuklina. What feature of these words is emphasized in the poem? How are these spirits formed? From what adjectives are these adverbs formed? To what category do they belong?

Our language is both humble and rich.
A wonderful treasure is hidden in every word.
Say the word "high" -
And immediately imagine the blue sky.
You say: "White is all around" -
And you will see a winter village
White snow hangs from white roofs
Not to be seen under the white snow of the rivers.
I will remember the adverb "light" -
And you will see: the sun has risen.
If you say the word you are dark,
Immediately the evening will look out the window.
If you say "fragrant" you
Immediately remember the lily of the valley flowers.
Well, if you say "beautiful",
Before you - all of Russia at once!

Among the adverbs, there are words of various stylistic and expressive colors. Many adverbs are formed from significant words. At the same time, they, as a rule, retain the stylistic and expressive characteristics of the producing word.
Adverbs can belong to the book style of speech, vernacular, neutral vocabulary, etc. Adverbs formed from adjectives with diminutive suffixes also retain this shade and colloquial stylistic coloration. The forms of the superlative degree of adverbs in -eishe (-ishe) are bookish, solemn in nature. Adverbs can be used as expressive means of speech, create figures and paths. The most typical means of expressiveness for an adjective are metaphor, epithet, antithesis, gradation, oxy-syumoron, pun, etc.

Tasks:
1. Read the sentences expressively. Name the adverbs, write them down with the words to which they refer. Highlight adverbs that perform an expressive function.

1) The boy sniffed shyly, incredulously, but, realizing that there was nothing terrible, but everything, on the contrary, comes out terribly funny, he wrinkled so that his nose turned up, and, too, he filled up mischievously and subtly in a childish way. (A. Fade-ev). 2) And I would tell a different cook to hack to death on the wall: so that there speeches are not wasted in vain, where you need to use power. (Krylov) 3) To live with wolves is to howl like a wolf. (Proverb). 4) Some kind of awkward: he has everything topsy-turvy. (Bianchi) 5) While we were consulting about whether to get away from the cloud and pick up the city, it was too late to leave. (V. Inb.) 6) Here is the songbird - he sings so well, but he sings alone. (Prishvin) 7) And so they met one on one. (S.SH.) 8) How can you split them when in Spain they work hand in hand? (Ehrenb.) 9. The whole day he did not give rest to the old grandmother, who did not like tobacco smoke to death. (Shol.) 10) I am going to a landowner who hired me to take over. 11) A tall blonde in a shabby frock coat entered with a cool magazine under his arm. 12) The enemy was completely defeated. 13) It is pleasant to enrage a blunder enemy with a daring epigram; it is pleasant to see how he, stubbornly bowing his horns, involuntarily looks in the mirror and is ashamed to recognize himself; more pleasant if he, friends, will howl foolishly: it's me! It is even more pleasant for him to prepare an honest coffin in silence and quietly aim at his pale forehead at a noble distance; but it will hardly please you to send him to the fathers. (A.S. Pushkin) 14) The joyful people of boys are loudly cutting the ice with skates; on red paws, a heavy goose, having conceived to swim in the bosom of the waters, steps carefully on the ice, slides and falls. (A. Pushkin) 15) Severely a blizzard howled and threw snow at the window, the sun rose gloomily; that morning it witnessed a sad picture. (N. Nekrasov) 16) ... How fun and sad in an empty forest between black branches, between golden leaves of birches, our tender sky turns blue. (I. Bunin) 17) Lives are the best moments - hearts of hot dreams, fatal impressions of evil, good and beauty; everything that is close, that is far, everything that is sad and funny, everything that is deeply sleeping in the soul, is illuminated at this moment.

2. Read the fairy tale of M.Ye. Saltykov-Shchedrin "The story of how one man fed two generals." Find in the text all the expressive means of speech known to you. Write out the expressively colored adverbs from the text. Explain to the thread what role they play in the literary text.

3. Make and write down sentences with adverbs, phraseological phrases, which include words - synonyms and words - antonyms: at random; completely; out of the frying pan into the fire; from a sore head to a healthy one; back and forth; not for life, but for death; Sooner or later; in black and white; up and down; at any moment; occasionally; from dawn to dawn; in a personal meeting; forever and ever.

4. Explain why the gerunds are not isolated in the following sentences.
1) Then the strange man slowly walked around the lower decks. (V. Cat.)
2) The doorman decided to walk slowly. (K. Paust.)
3) They sat down on a bench and sat in silence for a long time.
4) The fox turned around at the chicken coop and left unsparingly.
5) Mother got up and left without haste.
6) He ran at breakneck speed.
7) He worked carelessly.

Two-time beach soccer world champion Andrei Bukhlitsky is recovering from a serious injury. Now the athlete is waiting for the final third operation. The future plans of one of the most recognizable and charismatic Russian beach soccer players are to continue performing at a professional level, and then completely concentrate on coaching (in the new season, Andrei Bukhlitsky became the coach of the goalkeepers of the Russian beach soccer team).

In an interview with Izvestia, the titled goalkeeper named the best goalkeepers of the 2018 World Cup, and also spoke about his health problems and income in beach soccer.

- Have you watched the matches of the FIFA World Cup? Which ones did you manage to visit?

I watched almost all the games, but I could not get to the stadium, as I was busy with my health. Almost all this time he was in Singapore.

- What are your impressions of the game of our team and the organization of the championship?

I can say that the task of holding the tournament is 100% complete. All the reviews say exactly this. But the most important thing is that the nationwide mission of uniting the country around the national team has been accomplished. The national team did it not with words, but with the result.

- The question is "in the specialty." Which goalkeeper inspired you the most?

I will single out three: the Frenchman Hugo Lloris, the Belgian Thibaut Courtois and Igor Akinfeev. Goalkeepers should be distinguished by stability, so they should be determined by this very criterion.

- Is there anything now in the goalkeeping business that could be called revolutionary?

In fact, there is nothing even close. This is due to the historical framework - we must wait for the moment when such a person as Lev Yashin appears. He was the first to go out of the gate and perform the function of the last defender. So far in big football there are no such serious innovations from goalkeepers. I don’t find it surprising that goalkeepers started to play more with their feet.

- And what does Bayern goalkeeper Manuel Neuer do - is it PR or an attempt to help the team?

No, this is the state of the goalkeeper's soul. And the fact that he does it only proves the highest skill of Neuer. This is by no means "cheap show-offs". A person must do what he knows how to do.

Andrey Lunev played the last two matches for the Russian national team. Can he painlessly replace Igor Akinfeev?

I will say this: it can and should. Now in the country there are many young and talented goalkeepers who need playing practice. In this regard, he has a certain priority: Andrey is the main goalkeeper of Zenit.

- What talents are you talking about?

For example, about the goalkeeper of "Spartak" Alexander Selikhov. If, after injury, Sasha can regain his place at the base and play a series of good matches, he is quite capable of fighting for the place of the main goalkeeper of the national team.

Acting President of the Russian Football Union (RFU) Alexander Alaev is a native of beach soccer. Intersected with him on the field?

We played together for the Strogino team, and in mini-football we played with him at a fairly high level.

- How do you assess his performance in this responsible position?

I think that we got to the point with his appointment. Alexander Alexandrovich knows what he says, what he does, and not in theory, but from his rich experience. For him, there are no trifles in work, which distinguishes a good leader from a nominal one.

In August, you said that you were close to retirement due to the fault of doctors. Without going into details, what happened?

In short, an infection was introduced during the operation. We are all wrong, but the point is how we correct these mistakes. In my case, I was on my own. I would have forgiven all the guilty, but I have not received any help from them. There is a sense of injustice. Moreover, I know that this situation is far from unique. When my problem was revealed, people who found themselves in a similar situation began to write to me. It turns out that this was not the first time this happened.

- What are your further plans for recovery?

I have already gone through two operations. The biggest achievement is that we have defeated the infection. Now I have my third cruciate ligament reconstruction surgery.

- How do you assess the likelihood of returning to the professional level?

He always set himself the highest tasks and went to the most unattainable goals. Therefore, I will definitely say: I will try very hard to return.

- A very delicate question. Who helped you with operations that must be expensive?

Relatives and friends from big football, guys from business. Until I finish the treatment, I will not name the names. But after that, I will definitely list everyone and sincerely thank everyone. It turns out that I didn't play football for nothing. People helped me a lot and did it sincerely.

- Are we waiting for you in the ranks in the near future?

I really hope so, but now the problem lies in the operation. We found a good place, but, unfortunately, with all other expenses, at the moment I do not have enough funds for the third operation. Well, the goalkeeper is the team's last hope, so I do not lose hope for the help of good people.

- In this regard, the question is: what is the average salary of a top-level beach soccer player?

Incomparable to big football. The average salary is 80–100 thousand rubles a month.

- What additional items of income can a two-time world champion have?

Conducting master classes in the regions, for individual groups. Although this is in the case when it is paid for. Sometimes it happens that we do it all for free. I don't see any more income items, only to win the world championships.

You recently came from Irkutsk, where you took part in a charity match and held a number of master classes. Was it for money or for free?

As I said at the pre-match press conference, it is the duty of every player to be involved in charity. I will note that this was the first time I had such a format. More than 30 children representing RFSO Lokomotiv - the organization with which my best years are connected - and the local sports school, have charged me with positive emotions for a long time.

Yes, this is correct. But it was clear from the eyes of the children that they knew who Bukhlitsky was. The fan is our most important wealth. Probably, with a glance, you can say that I am a bit of a media person.

- What caused your addiction to pu-erh, which is constantly in your thermos?

Tea and the tea ceremony are meant to bring people together. Good people converge on this very tool. For me, tea is like a football team, which is a separate organism. This organism itself "spits out" unnecessary elements and lives an active and honest life.

- Who does Andrei Bukhlitsky see himself in 10 years?

First, Andrei Bukhlitsky sees himself as a good person. Well, I would also like to be a three-time and five-time world champion, but already on the coaching bridge.

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The expressive means of morphology include the expressive use of parts of speech. So, "verbal" texts, in which nouns prevail, help to complete a landscape sketch (Whispers, timid breathing, nightingale trills, silver and the waving of a sleepy stream.

A. Fet) or create a battle painting: Twilight. Nature. Flute's voice is nervous. Later riding. The emperor in a blue caftan is riding the front horse (V. Okudzhava). They give the poems laconicism and help convey the inner drama.

Adjectives add brightness, expressiveness and imagery to the text:

Gently dispassionate, Gently cold, Eternally subject, Eternally free ... Lying, clear, Sound-sad, Alien beautiful, Close, distant.

(N. Minsky)

Verbs make the text more dynamic (* Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts ... A. Pushkin) and at the same time help to convey the state of mind of a person:

How early could he be a hypocrite, Conceal hope, be jealous, Reassure, make one believe, Seem gloomy, languish ...

(A. Pushkin)

Adverbs (And I am going - trouble is after me, not straight and not obliquely. Vizbor), conveying the feelings of the lyrical hero, highlighting the main thoughts of the author.

The morphological means of expressiveness also includes such a technique as negative comparison, when phenomena are not compared, but opposed. It is often used in oral folk art. An essential means of creating a negative comparison is the negative particle NOT:

In a lost place, in a melted star, you will find me where you will not be anywhere else. There is a distant dock, the last refuge, where sorrow is not known and the dead are not honored.

(O. Chukhontsev)

The Russian language is extremely rich in syntactic figurative means. This is because words can move freely within a sentence. Unlike Western European languages, in Russian there is no mandatory specification, there are no articles. This gives rise to many pictorial devices: stylistic figures.

Inversion (from the Latin inversio - "inversion", "permutation") - the reverse order of words in a sentence.

In Russian, there is a direct word order: first - the subject, then the predicate; the addition and circumstance expressed by a noun is placed after the words to which they refer; definitions - adjectives and circumstances - adverbs - before the main words. The violation of the usual word order is inversion. Usually, the inversion technique allows you to highlight the most significant words:

The forest sheds its crimson dress, Srebrit the frost of a withered field, The day will pass, as if involuntarily, And disappear beyond the edge of the surrounding mountains.

(A. Pushkin)

Inversion acquires special significance in poetic texts, since it is not only a stylistic figure, but also gives the poem a certain rhythm.

Inversion affects the intonational characteristics of the sentence, its emotional structure:

Out of humility, poems are not written,

And you can't write them at anyone's discretion.

They say they can be written out of contempt.

Only insight dictates them.

(JI. Martynov)

The pictorial means of syntax are also rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations, rhetorical addresses.

Rhetorical questions are questions that do not require an answer. They help to express the feelings and thoughts of the lyric hero: doubt, uncertainty; they convey internal tension, enhance the emotionality of the poem:

A snowy plain, a white moon, Our side is covered with a shroud. And birches in white are crying through the forests. Who died here? Died? Am I not myself?

(S. Yesenin)

Rhetorical exclamations and addresses (the utterance is addressed, as a rule, to an inanimate person) also helps to convey the thoughts and feelings of the author, to reveal his inner world: Dreams, dreams! Where is your sweetness! (A. Pushkin)

The pictorial means of syntax include ellipsis (from the Greek ellepsis - "loss", "omission") - a gap in a phrase of a word that can be easily reconstructed by meaning; We are rich, barely out of the cradle, in the mistakes of our fathers and their late wits (M. Lermontov); He did not sob, did not weave naked, whipped, scarred ... (B. Pasternak). Ellipsis gives speech impetuosity, tension.

Syntactic parallelism is built on the same construction of following one after another sentences:

And good people pass by: If an old man passes by, he crosses himself, If a young man passes by, he becomes dignified, If a girl passes, she will become sad, And the guslars will pass by - they will sing a song.

(M. Lermontov)

Syntactic parallelism in combination with lexical repetitions allows you to create a vivid artistic image, to convey the dynamism of the depicted picture.

Chiasm is one of the pictorial syntactic means, a stylistic figure in which parallel members of a sentence are located first in a straight line and then in a reverse sequence: We were four sisters, we were four sisters (M. Kuzmin). Chiasm highlights, emphasizes the most important information for the author.

Non-union is a figure based on the deliberate omission of conjunctions between words in a phrase and a sentence: Swede, Russian pricks, chops, cuts ... (A. Pushkin). Non-union, like ellipsis, gives speech tension, impetuosity.

Multi-union is a figure based on the repetition of the same unions:

And there is no feeling in your eyes, And there is no truth in your speeches, And there is no soul in you ...

(F. Tyutchev)

Unlike non-union and ellipsis, multi-union slows down the pace of speech, encourages the reader to think, to reflect with the author.

The plurality of homogeneous members of the sentence is a figure based on the plural use of homogeneous members of the sentence: I read, lived in other people's inventions, and the field, the manor, the village, the peasants, the horse, flies, bumblebees, birds, clouds - all lived their own, real life (And . Bunin).

The use of a plurality of homogeneous members of a sentence helps the author to emphasize all the diversity of the surrounding world, to create a complete picture of reality.

Analyzing the figurative means of syntax, we can conclude that syntax is not only a section of the Russian language that studies a phrase and a sentence, but also a linguistic level at which all linguistic figurative means that exist not in isolation, but in a syntactic unit - a sentence, unite and interact.

§ 185. Grammatical (morphological) forms of words as the most important units of the morphological structure of a language are formed and morphological meanings are expressed in different ways, using different linguistic means. In other words, in the morphology of a language, various morphological methods and means are used, which in special linguistic literature are usually called grammatical methods and means.

In this case, the terms "methods of forming grammatical forms" and "means of forming grammatical forms", or "grammatical methods" and "grammatical means" are often mixed and used as absolute synonyms.

You can try to distinguish between the terms under consideration and the concepts denoted by them. In this tutorial, they are distinguished as follows: explanation of the concept way of education morphological grammatical forms of words, or morphological way, suggests an answer to the question: how (= in what way) are grammatical forms of words formed ?; explanation of the concept means of education forms of words, or morphological means, presupposes an answer to the question: with the help of what (= by what means, by what means) grammatical forms of words are formed, their grammatical meanings are expressed? It should be noted that it is not always possible to strictly distinguish between morphological methods and means. This applies, in particular, to such phenomena as reduplication, suppletivism (see below about them).

§ 186. Among the methods of forming morphological grammatical forms, or morphological methods, there are synthetic and analytical, or descriptive methods. Synthetic(from the Greek. synthesis- "connection, composition") is a morphological method in which the forms of words are formed within one lexical unit, lexeme, without the use of auxiliary words, for example, with the help of grammatical service morphemes of different types, alternation of phonemes, word stress. Analytical(from the Greek. analysis -"decomposition, dismemberment") is considered such a morphological method in which the forms of words are formed with the help of certain auxiliary words. In this case, the grammatical meaning of a word form is usually expressed by an auxiliary word, and the main word expresses only the lexical, real meaning (values), for example, in forms like more beautiful, the most beautiful, I will write. In some cases, the grammatical meanings of analytical word forms are expressed not only by an auxiliary, but also by the main word, for example, in the following word forms: I am writing, on the table and others. The formation of such grammatical forms is sometimes distinguished in a special way, called hybrid, or mixed.

§ 187. In Russian and many other languages, the most important morphological means are service morphemes, especially endings. In Russian, endings are used, for example, in the formation of most grammatical forms of all inflected and conjugated words. Suffixes are mainly used to form forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs, specific forms of the verb (cf .: jump and jump, tell and tell and others), past tense forms, participles, gerunds. With the help of postfixes, verb forms of the passive voice are formed ( have fun, dress up etc.), some forms of imperative mood ( tell me, let's sing and etc.).

In addition to Russian and other Slavic languages, the use of service morphemes is the dominant morphological means in such modern languages ​​as Lithuanian, Latvian, English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Estonian, Finnish, Turkish, Uzbek, Altai, etc. In different languages ​​for education similar (identical in grammatical meanings) forms can be used morphemes of different types. So, in Russian and other closely related languages, the main means of forming participles are suffix morphemes, in German and some other Indo-European languages, prefixes are widely used (compare, for example, German lesen- "read" and gelesen -"read", schreiben -"write" and geschrieben -"written", etc.).

One and the same service morpheme can serve as an indicator of different grammatical forms of a word. For example, in Russian, the ending -NS in forms like steppe, shadow is an indicator of the singular and instrumental case, and also indicates that the word belongs to the feminine gender; the ending -and I in adjectives it serves as an indicator of a positive degree, feminine gender, singular, nominative, and also indicates that the corresponding forms are full, pronouns; the ending -y in verb forms - an indicator of the indicative mood, present (or future - in the case of perfective verbs) tense, singular, 1st person. Conversely, two or more morphemes can participate in the formation of the same grammatical form of a word. So, for example, when forming the plural forms of some nouns in Russian, in addition to the endings that are mandatory for such forms, the suffixal morpheme is also used (cf., for example: brothers, sons). In German, in the formation of some forms of participles, a prefix and a suffix are used simultaneously (compare, for example: machen- "to do" and gemacht -"made"),

§ 188. The second most important, in terms of role in shaping and prevalence in different languages, morphological means is the use of auxiliary words. This morphological tool is known to most of the world's languages. Auxiliary verbs, some pronouns, adverbs and service words - prepositions, postpositions, particles, articles can be used as auxiliary words in the formation of descriptive grammatical forms.

Auxiliary verbs are often used in the formation of descriptive verb forms. In Russian and other Slavic languages, for example, with their help, personal forms of the future tense are formed from imperfect verbs ( I will write, you will read and etc.). In German and other Germanic languages, in addition to the forms of the future tense, with their help forms of different past tense are formed - imperfect, perfect, pluperfect. Personal pronouns are involved in the formation of many verb forms. (I read, you read, he would read). The definitive pronoun is most used to form the analytical form of the superlative degree of the adjective ( the youngest). The analytical form of the comparative degree of an adjective can be formed using an adverb ( higher, lesser known). In the languages ​​of some Australian tribes, the plural of nouns is formed using the significant word meaning "many".

Service words are most often used in nominal shaping. Prepositions are often used in the formation of case forms of nouns and other declined words, to express or clarify their grammatical meanings (cf „for example: to the cinema and from the cinema, to the mountain and on the mountain, until the night, by the night, about the night). In some languages, such as English, French, case inflections are almost absent, prepositions serve as the main means of expressing case values. In languages ​​that contain postpositions, they perform a similar role. So, in the Bashkir language, postpositions karshi, kure, hatle serve as an indicator of the dative case, postpositions Ketsek, Menen, Wasp, Ticklem, Schikelle- indefinite case. Postpositions perform a similar function in Finnish, Tajik, Uzbek and other languages. Articles can denote the grammatical gender of nouns (for example, in German), the definiteness or indefiniteness of a name. Particles in Russian and some other languages ​​are used to form subjunctive verb forms.

§ 189. In many languages ​​such a morphological means as grammatical (morphological) alternation of phonemes, which was mentioned when it came to phonetics, is widely used. This phenomenon is also called internal flexion. According to the testimony of linguists, it plays a noticeable role in shaping, in the expression of grammatical meanings in languages ​​such as English, Arabic, Hebrew, in the languages ​​of the peoples of Africa, Indians of North America, etc. (compare some examples from individual Indo-European languages: German Bruder- "brag" and In ruder- "brothers", Garten- "garden" and Gaiten- "gardens", waschen- "wash, wash" and wuschen- "washed, washed", Lithuanian prasau -"please" and prasiau- "asked", statau -"set, build" and staciau- "set, built"), In the Russian language, the alternation of phonemes is usually used as an additional morphological means, accompanies other morphological means, primarily morphemic (compare, for example: friend - friends, short - in short, bake – bake, see - see, consider - consider, ask – ask etc.). As an independent, only morphological means, it is used extremely rarely (cf. run across - run across, shut up - shut up, send – send, collect - collect, lay down – lie down and some others (for more details see § 72)).

§ 190. An important means of differentiating the grammatical forms of words and the grammatical meanings expressed by them is word stress, which in many languages ​​performs a form-distinguishing, or form-cognitive, function. Naturally, stress can perform this function only in those languages ​​in which it is free, i.e. not fixed to a specific place in a word in relation to the beginning or end of a word, and movable, i.e. can change place in a word during the formation of different grammatical forms (see about this in § 63). In Russian, this accent morphological means is most often observed in the inflection of nouns; Wed, for example: at home and at home, windows and windows, hand and hands(grammatical number and case differ). Less often, a similar phenomenon occurs in the sphere of the verb; Wed: cut off and cut off, sprinkle and scatter(the type is different), find out and recognize, admit and admit(type and time differ), wear and wear, praise and praise(inclination is different).

Consonant, homonymous grammatical forms of words, differing in the place of word stress, are actually formed using different morphemes. In cases like cut off – cut off, sprinkle - sprinkle stressed vowel a in the forms of the imperfect form, it is a grammatical suffix, which is an indicator of the given specific form, while the corresponding unstressed vowel in the forms of the perfect form is the "shaper of the infinitive stem", a formal indicator of the morphological class of the verb. Forms like I recognize - I recognize with the only difference that in the imperfect form the suffix -a-(the so-called truncation of the base is reflected). The presence or absence of an imperfect suffix -a- the above specific verb forms with alternating phonemes at the base also differ: run across - run across, shut up – keep silent, send - send, collect – to collect etc. Stressed and unstressed endings of nouns in forms such as home - at home, hand - hands are different morphemes that are in a homonymous relationship with each other.

§ 191. In languages ​​with tonic, musical stress, ie. characterized by the presence of sound intonation, sound intonation can serve as one of the morphological means. In the course of considering phonetics, attention was drawn to the fact that in the Lithuanian language, for example, sound intonation serves as the only means of distinguishing the case forms of a numeral du- "two": in the dative case dviem the diphthong is pronounced with a descending intonation, in the homonymous form of the instrumental hope dviem- with ascending intonation. In Serbian, the case forms of nouns are distinguished with the help of intonation. Sound intonation performs a similar (form-discriminating) function in other languages ​​with tonic stress (for more details, see § 65).

§ 192. In some cases, the only means of distinguishing between grammatical forms and the grammatical meanings expressed by them is the word order in the sentence, or word order. Such a morphological tool plays an important role, first of all, in languages ​​with a firm word order in a sentence, especially in those "in which there are no forms of inflection (or there are few of them) and the word in the direct and indirect cases usually retains the same form." This applies to languages ​​such as, for example, Chinese - with a "grammatically significant word order", English, in which the members of the sentence are arranged in the following order: in the first place is the subject, in the second - the predicate, in the third - the complement, in the fourth - circumstance. So, for example, in the English sentence The man killed a tiger- "Man killed the tiger" noun man is the subject, since it comes first, therefore, it is used in the meaning of the nominative case, and the noun tiger- addition, since it stands in third place, after the predicate, therefore, expresses the meaning of the accusative case; in a sentence The tiger killed the man- "The tiger killed a man", on the contrary, in the meaning of the nominative case, the word is used tiger, and in the meaning of the accusative - the word man.

In languages ​​with a free word order, such as Russian, Lithuanian, Latin and many others, the sequence of the arrangement of words in the utterance does not play a big role in differentiating the grammatical forms of words and their semantics, although it has a certain meaning - in the case of coincidence of different word forms in the formal sense; Wed, for example, such Russian sentences: Being determines consciousness; The daughter met her mother; Zalgiris defeated Pakhtakor(from the TV show); Day turns to night, joy – pain(words from a song). Nouns that occupy the first place in such statements usually represent the nominative case, nouns that are in the third place (after the predicate) - the accusative form. Such a sequence of the arrangement of the subject and object in a statement in languages ​​with a free word order is not strict enough (see below).

§ 193. The grammatical form of non-declining nouns, as well as declining nouns with homonymous word forms, in an utterance can be determined by syntactic connections, by the compatibility of nouns with other words - nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs. It is easy to determine, for example, the case and the number of a dependent (subordinate, defining) noun in such subordinate phrases, such as, for example: a glass of cocoa, a cup of coffee, two coats, three compartments(genitive singular), a herd of kangaroos, a flock of cockatoo, five hummingbirds, ten kilos drinking coffee, watching a movie, listening to the radio(accusative singular), interested in interview(instrumental case). The grammatical form of the dominant (defined) word is easily recognized by the endings of the form of the subordinate word; Wed: hot coffee(nominative singular) sweet cocoa(genitive case of the singular ch of Islam), new coats(genitive plural), my necklace(instrumental plural), etc. The number of non-declining nouns also differs in the form of the predicate verb, if the verb is used in the form of the past tense or the subjunctive mood; Wed, for example: the coat is wet(singular), hummingbirds would fly away(plural).

"In the event that a feature belongs to an object or person named by a noun belonging to the zero declension (that is, a non-declining noun. - V. N.), forms mi. h. adjectives indicate the grammatical meaning of the number of these nouns; for example: pink flamingos - pink flamingos; difficult on – difficult pas ".

The grammatical form of the predicate verb can also serve as a means of distinguishing between the nominative case of a noun used as a subject and the accusative case as an object, as, for example, in the sentence: "The end justifies the means." Here is a verb-predicate justifies agrees in number with a noun goal, which is the subject, i.e. represents the nominative form, and the noun funds is addition, represents the accusative case; Wed also: "The screams seemed to drown out the clapping of their hands, the stamping suppressed the knocking of rifle butts on the floor" (K. Fedin. An Unusual Summer); "The wind carries from the Baltic Sea Raging waves of voice" (A. Surkov. Evening of memories).

In cases where the subject and the object are expressed in the form of the same number, the syntactic function of different nouns and, therefore, their belonging to the nominative or accusative case is determined by the meaning of the statement. Some examples: "This is what the indiscriminate mass movements of air have brought to our native Parym lands" (V. Lipatov. And this is all about him); "Our art destroys realism" (M. Gorky. The Life of Klim Samgin); "Warm rain washes Nevsky Prospekt" (lyrics from the song). In all the above cases, the subject is located after the object, and the object precedes the subject (contrary to the usual, typical for the Russian language, arrangement of the members of the sentence). Nevertheless, the word forms represent the nominative case displacement(in the first sentence), realism(in the second sentence) and rain(in the third sentence), the accusative case, respectively, word forms edge, art, prospect.

§ 194. In many languages ​​of the world for the expression of certain grammatical meanings is used reduplication(from lat. reduplicatio- "doubling"), which is often also called repetition, doubling (root). Reduplication in grammar (in morphology) means "full or partial repetition of a root", "repetition of a syllable or a whole root, used in different languages ​​to express grammatical meanings". Sometimes this phenomenon is understood somewhat more broadly. " Reruns, or reduplications, consist in full or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change in it. " complete reduplication (full doubling), repetition of a separate (initial) syllable, or partial repetition of a root, is called partial reduplication (partial doubling). The repetition of whole words is qualified by some linguists as a "limiting case of reduplication", bordering on word formation, the formation of complex words. Reduplication in morphology can be considered both as a morphological means and as a morphological method.

Reduplication as a morphological tool (morphological method) is used in languages ​​such as, for example, Armenian, Bushman, Indonesian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Chinese, Korean, Malay, Samoan, Sumerian (dead), Javanese, Japanese. In morphology, it is most often used to express the number of nouns. Some examples of complete reduplication: Indonesian orang-orang"people" (cf. orang- "human"), kuda-kuda- "horses" (cf. kuda- "horse"), Bushman ka-ka- "hands" (cf. ka- "hand"), tu-tu- "mouths" (cf. tu -"mouth"), kwiri-kwiri- "abyss" (cf. kwiri- "abyss"), Chinese sin-sin- "stars" (cf. sin- "star"), Armenian gund-gund- "shelves" (cf. gund- "regiment"), Javanese ratu-ratu -"rulers" (cf. ratu- "ruler"), Sumerian kup-kup- "countries" (cf. kup- "country"), Kyrgyz uimek-uimek- "haystacks" (cf. uymek- "haystack"), with the help of reduplication, the value of the plural of other parts of speech can also be transmitted; e.g. Samoan ai-ai- "eat" (cf. ai- "eating"), tetele- "large" (cf. tele -"large"). In the latter case, partial reduplication is used.

According to some linguists, with the help of reduplication, the meaning of the degrees of comparison of adjectives, for example, the superlative degree in the Kazakh language, can also be expressed: jaxes-jaxes- "the best" (cf. jaxes- "good"), kyzyl-kyzyl -"the most beautiful" (cf. kyzyl- "beautiful"). As examples of forms of the superlative degree of adjectives, formations such as Russian are often given big-big in the meaning of "very large", small-small- "very small", kind kind -"very kind" kind-kind -"very kind", etc., Hawaiian lii-lii"very small" (for lit -"small"), etc. Such formations express the special meaning of amplification, which is, rather, a lexical, derivational meaning, and not grammatical, morphological (for more details, see § 173).

§ 195. Among morphological means, or methods, a special place is occupied by suppletivism(from lat. suppletivus- "complementary"), which is fundamentally different from all other means discussed above. Suppletivism is the use of different roots or stems to express the grammatical (morphological) meanings of words.

The phenomenon of suppletivism is widespread in various Indo-European languages, including Russian. It is found, for example, when denoting the grammatical number of nouns (cf. people - people, child – children), comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs (small - less, bad - worse, good - better), distinguishing between full and short adjectives (large - great), kind of verb (take - take, speak - say, put - put, catch – to catch), verb tense (there is - I was, I was walking - I was walking), case of personal pronouns (I am – me, he - him, we - us, they – their).

Similar formations are used in other Indo-European languages; Wed, for example: Latin bonus -"good", melior -"better" and optimus -"best", few- "I'm carrying", tuli -"I carried" and latum -"to carry", ego- "Me and mei -"me"; french bon- "good and meilleur -"better", mauvais- "bad" and pire -"worse", aller -"go", vais- "I'm going" and imi- "I will go", est- "there is", sont -"they are" and fut -"was", mustache - "I" and those- "me"; german Mensch -"man" and Leute -"people", gut -"good and besser -"better", sprechen -"talk" and sagen -"to tell", sein -"to be", bin sind- 1st person plural present and war - singular past tense, ich -"Me and meiner -"me"; english good -"good and better -"better", i - "I" and those -"me, me"; Lithuanian Imti -"to be", esu- 1st person singular present, huh - 3rd person singular and plural present and buvo - 3rd person singular and plural past tense, as -"Me and man -"to me"; greek agathos -"good", ateipon -"better" and mistos -"the best"; Sanskrit words agham -"Me and tat -"me".

In modern linguistics, the question of whether suppletive formations (supplements) belong to units of morphology or vocabulary remains controversial. Most often, suppletivism is defined as one of the means (one of the ways) of the formation of grammatical forms the same word.

Let us compare, for example, the following definitions: "SUPPLETI'VISM ... Formation of forms of the same word from different roots or stems, the differences of which go beyond alternation"; "SUPPLETIVISM ... the formation of forms of the same word from different roots", which "are devoid of formal (phonemic) proximity and therefore cannot be combined into one morpheme."

There is another, opposite opinion on this issue. Some linguists argue that correlative (correlative in lexical meanings) supplementary units are different words.

You can, for example, quote the following statement by F. P. Filin: " Human – people - two different words, since their phonemic composition and origin are completely different. "A similar opinion is expressed by RA Budagov, according to which, in the supplementary formation of degrees of comparison," adjective "is replaced by" a completely different word. "

I.A.Mel'chuk categorically opposes the recognition of correlative suppletive units as different forms of the same word, who calls this interpretation of suppletivism a misunderstanding.

The recognition of supplementary formations in different words, rather than in the forms of one word, seems to be more convincing. The interpretation of such units as different forms of one word contradicts the generally accepted understanding of the word, which is characterized by the unity of form and content, "the unity of the lexical meaning and the means of its material expression." If different words (homonyms) are such units that are the same in sound, but differ in lexical meanings, then with no less reason, independent words should be recognized as units that have completely different sound shells, although they coincide in lexical meanings (as is the case with lexical synonymy). The recognition of supplementary units as forms of one word is also inconsistent with the understanding of the grammatical form of a word as a morphological variety, "regular modification of the word", one of the morphological variants of a word. This point of view on supplementary formations is inconsistent with lexicographic practice, the description of words in dictionaries, where many supplements are qualified as different words, i.e. are described in different dictionary entries.

1. Errors associated with the use of nouns.

2. Errors associated with the use of verb forms.

3. Errors associated with the use of adjectives.

4. Errors associated with the use of numerals, pronouns.

Errors associated with the use of nouns. Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, the grammatical meanings of the means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.

Morphology of the norm - the rules for the use of morphological forms of different parts of speech.

The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the options can differ in shades of meanings, stylistic coloring, sphere of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it.

The largest group is made up of options whose use is limited by the functional style or genre of speech.

In colloquial speech, the genitive plural forms of orange, tomato, instead of oranges, tomatoes are often found; from her, from her, instead of her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and oral speech is considered a violation of the morphological hole.

1. Nouns ending their stem with the sounds -in- in the genitive case have a zero ending, these are:

a) words denoting belonging to a particular nation, for example: Georgian, Abazin;

b) attitude to a certain territory, for example: southerners, northerners, volzhan

There are words that cannot be put under one or another classified definition, for example: felt boot, boot, stocking, pagon, partisan, soldier, waffles, kacherg, mokoron, sheet, saucers, towels, gills.

But: socks, Kalmyks, Kyrgyz, Mongols, Tajiks, oranges, tangerines, tomatoes, kilograms, hectares, rakes, manger, candles, canned food, runs, finance, everyday life, Greeks, Hutsuls, Kurds, Eskimos.

In the prepositional case, the following cases require memorization: many masculine words, 2 declensions that have the meaning of "inanimate" end at instead of the common e in the prepositional singular. If the preposition v or to indicates a place, time, mode of action, for example: in a service, in the snow, in the forest, in the nose, in alcohol, in alcohol. However, the prepositional case can be expressed variably. For example: in the shop - in the shop, vacation - vacation, in the wind - in the wind. In a business scientific speech, the ending e, but in colloquial at.

In the instrumental case: doors (colloquial) - doors (lit.), horses (colloquial) - horses (lit.).

One can also note "frozen forms": lie down with your bones, be proud of your sons and daughters.

2. Nouns used only in the plural: vacations, burners, christenings, darkness, twilight.

Nominative.

When choosing the ending -а (i) or -ы (and), you should pay attention to the fact that many words have normative forms:

A (-ya-) - running, doctor, feed, bathing, coachman, watchman, tower;

S (-) - pharmacists, librarians, elections, graduates, consuls, tractors, paramedic.

Sometimes the endings indicate semantic differences:

Conductor NS- devices in technology;

Conductor a- transport workers.

The word accountant in the nominative case, the plural has only the form with the ending - NS... Accountants!

Use of number forms . Real nouns sugar, fuel oil, oil, marble are used in the singular form: sugar, fuel, oil, oil, salt, marble. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use. In some cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language incorrectly, the shoe, and the shoe with the stress on the first syllable is correct.

Gender category: There are many masculine and feminine words in Russian to denote people by their position, profession. With nouns denoting a position, profession, rank, title, difficulties arising in speech are explained by the characteristics of this group of words. What are they?

Firstly, in the Russian language there are names of the masculine gender and there are no parallels of the feminine gender to them, or (much less often) there are only names of the feminine gender. For example: rector, businessman, financier, envoy, laundress, nanny, milliner, manicurist, midwife, dowry, lacemaker, seamstress minder, president, ambassador, candidate of sciences, diplomat.

Secondly, there are names, both masculine and feminine, both of them are neutral. For example: an athlete is an athlete, a poet is a poetess.

Thirdly, both forms of both masculine and feminine gender are formed, but the words of the feminine gender differ in meaning or stylistic coloring.

So, the words of a professor, a doctor, have the meaning - "the professor's wife", "the doctor's wife" and a colloquial tone, but how the titles of the position become colloquial. The generic parallels of a cashier, watchman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, watchman, usher are qualified as colloquial, and the doctor as vernacular.

Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral parallel of the feminine gender in the language. Such cases are increasing. According to scientists, the number of names that do not have a female generic parallel is increasing every year, for example: cosmophysicist, television commentator, TV reporter, bionicist, cyberneticist, etc., while this position can be occupied by a woman.

What is the way out for speakers and writers? As linguists answer, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts, in business correspondence, syntactic indication of faces is increasingly used. Sometimes with masculine nouns, the verb in the past tense has the feminine form. For example: The doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable, not violating the norm of the literary language. The use of masculine nouns that do not have a derivational parallel of the feminine glad as a name for a woman is a pretext for the fact that fluctuations in the forms of agreement have intensified. The following options became possible: the young physicist Yakovleva - the young physicist Yakovleva.

The frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “grammatical correctness of Russian speech” says about such use of definitions: “In written, strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the noun being defined is accepted: the outstanding mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya; new prime minister of India Indira Gandhi.

The most common grammatical errors are associated with the use of the gender of nouns. You can hear the wrong phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, big corn, custom parcel, but the noun of the rail, shampoo is masculine, (lit.v) medium. genus. - colloquial, corn - feminine, cuff - feminine, sandal feminine, curtain - masculine, shoe - feminine, parcel post - feminine, ballerina - ballet soloist, dancer, ballet dancer, typist - feminine - copyist on typewriter.

Violation of the grammatical norm is associated with the use of prepositions in speech. Prepositions for and thanks .

The preposition thanks retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank. Have are consumed to indicate the cause causing the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to the right treatment. With a sharp contradiction between the initial lexical meaning of the preposition due to and indicating a negative reason, the use of this preposition is not desirable: I did not come to work due to illness, in this case it is correct - because of illness.

Prepositions thanks, in spite of, in accordance with, towards the modern standards are used only with the dative case.

Errors associated with the use of verb forms.

Insufficient verbs: win, convince, find yourself, weird. They do not have enough structural features for the formation of verbs 1 person, singular. In this regard, this form is formed through descriptive expressions: I can win, I can find myself, I convinced you etc. Abundant verbs: moves - moves, rinses - rinses, waves - waves, wiggles - wiggles, etc.

The verbs to eat and eat are an example of the complexity of the stylistic system of the Russian language. The verb to eat is not used either in the first or in the third person, only an imperative mood like “Eat served”, “Eat for health” is possible. This verb is possible in addressing children as an expression of tenderness and affection.

The first form is colloquial, and the second is literary. Lag is a lie. The root of a lie is not used without a prefix: borrow, instead of borrowing money.

Dried up wet; the norm is the loss of the suffix well in all past tense forms of prefixed verbs, getting wet is wet, soaked.

The verbal participle of the perfect type pine for a vowel sound can be used in two forms: with the suffix в, and with the suffix lice (for example: having listened, overlooked).

Forms for lice are inherent in a vernacular nature, forms are not commonly used: saw - generally used. lit. in-t .; seen - spoken; notify, cork - talk. v. T.; notify, cork - book. v. T.

Errors associated with the use of adjectives. It is the short forms of the superlative and comparative degree of adjectives that are most “vulnerable” and are “tense” points in orthoepy.

Speech errors.

a) The girl was tall, beautiful and cheerful. In one genus, full and short forms are used.

b) My brother is older than me, he studies well. Older is an expression that is a combination in one construction of simple and complex forms of a comparative degree. I must say: My brother is older than me. Good me. From the words good, bad, supplementary forms of degrees are formed - better, worse. He's more capable and smarter than me.

Simple and complex forms of degrees of comparison cannot be used as homogeneous members of a sentence. I should have said: Brother is more capable and smarter than me.

The short forms have a predominantly bookish stylistic coloring: The lecture is interesting and instructive.

Short adjectives sound more categorical in the text, they usually express an active and specific sign: Thoughts are clear, the girl is beautiful.

The full forms of adjectives are usually used in colloquial speech: The lecture is interesting and instructive.

The full form indicates a permanent sign, the short form indicates a temporary one: The girl is beautiful (in general) the girl is beautiful (at the moment).

Full and short forms of adjectives can be semantic variants, i.e. have different lexical meanings: deaf boy - deaf boy (to requests).

When forming short forms of adjectives with unstressed - enlightened(natural, solemn) fluctuations are observed. Artificial - artificial, artificial; solemn - solemn, solemn.

Currently, these options are equal, they are entrenched in all styles. But more common is the truncated form (on yen). Possessive and relative adjectives in speech can be replaced by synonymous forms of indirect cases of nouns: mother's book is mother's book, stone wall is a wall of stone. But in a number of cases, such combinations differ in meaning: the gait of the old man is the old man's gait (figurative meaning), the painting of the wall is the wall painting (terminological meaning).

Similar information.