Combinations of what syntactic links. Subject Subject of syntax. Syntax objects and syntactic units proper, their relationship. Sint. units. Various approaches to the problem of their isolation and differentiation

It is clear from the overview of syntactic units given in the Introduction that they tend to be composed of several components. Only a proposal can be one-component. At the same time, one component (as a unit of language) sentence in speech can consist of several syntactically related word forms: The beginning of dawn; It became cold. In addition, a word that is in one of its forms the only component of a sentence, as a rule, in speech allows the possibility of spreading - joining
to it forms of other words; Wed: Fire. - Forest fire; Daybreak. - It gets late in autumn; Leave! - Get out of here now!; It's cold. - It's cold in the tent in winter. Thus, a one-component sentence, represented in speech by one word form, is potentially multicomponent.
The components of syntactic units are with each other in certain semantic links - syntactic relations that are formally identified, objectified by syntactic links. Therefore, the syntactic connection, that is, formal, line relations between the components of a syntactic unit, revealing semantic connections - syntactic relations - and expressed by means of language, constitutes the original and fundamental concept of syntax.
As part of different syntactic units, syntactic links combine components of a different nature. Eight types of syntactic compounds are possible, which differ in the nature of the connected components: 1) word + word form; 2) word form - (word form; 3) simple, sentence 4 simple sentence; 4) word 4 is a simple sentence; 5) the form of the word 4 is a simple sentence; 6) word combination 4 form of a word; 7) simple sentence 4 complex sentence; 8) complex sentence 4 complex sentence.

The connection of a word (lexeme) with the form of a word is possible only in a phrase. So, word-for-word; The subscribe to a newspaper, built according to the VtransN 4synt formula, is a compound of the word to subscribe, which can be included in this phrase in any of its forms (subscribe a newspaper, subscribe a newspaper, subscribe a newspaper, subscribed a newspaper, etc.); the only exception is the form passive participle, which is characterized by a fundamentally different attitude to the noun form that names the object of action: a subscribed newspaper), and one form of the word newspaper, namely the accusative case.
The connection of the form of a word with the form of words and is possible both in a sentence and in a phrase, and in different syntactic units, the compounds of this type are not the same: coinciding in the quality of the components being connected, they differ in the nature of the connection. So, in the sentence Sad blooms, the nominative form of the noun and the conjugated form of the verb are syntactically connected. If we use a verb in an unconjugated form, for example, in the infinitive, then it will lose the ability to combine with the nominative form and, in combination with the noun dative form, forms a sentence of a different type: Sadu bloom! (V. M.) ".

In the phrase with diligence, but without being carried away by the syntactic connection, two forms of indirect cases of nouns are connected (complicated by the occurrence of prepositions in them), in the phrase book, newspaper and magazine - forms of the nominative case of several nouns.

Two or several simple sentences can be syntactically connected only in a complex sentence: There is no happiness on the sowing, but there is peace and will (P.); Now the sun was burning with a shining azure, then clouds were piling up in mountains, then violent downpours fell on the steamer and the sea in floods (Bun.). The boundaries between the proposals are marked by unions.
A complex sentence can be formed by combining a word with a simple sentence. This is the principle of organizing proverbial complex sentences. So, with a subordinate part introduced by union words which, such as, etc., any noun can be combined, and in the complex sentence formed in this way, the combination "word + simple sentence" is realized: Here is a wooded hill, over which I often sat immovable (P. ).

A prerequisite for the formation of a complex sentence on the basis of such a connection is the entry of the noun determined by the subordinate part into another part, which becomes the main one in relation to the subordinate part. If this condition is not met, which is rare, since words are usually actually used in sentences, then a complex sentence does not arise. So, for example, it happens when a noun is used as an appeal, or as a heading, or as a nominative theme: Oh you, who go around the light around with a desire to burn! (Cr.); The explosions that were expected (headline).
“Arguing in this way, we leave aside the cases of the transpositive use of the infinitive in the place of the conjugated form: Children - to run whoever where. But their involvement in the analysis does not shake this position, since in this use the infinitive acquires properties characteristic of certain conjugated forms: the meaning of the real past action.

The comparative of an adjective or adverb has the property of combining with the subordinate part of a sentence, introduced by the union than, as a result of which a complex sentence arises, in which the form of the word and a simple sentence are syntactically connected: The old street seemed to me only a little narrower than it seemed before (Boon.) ...

The combination of the form of a word with a sentence can also take place in a compositional series of the type I thought about the form of the plan and as a hero I will name (P.). In this case, the sentence (as I will call the hero) acts as an occasional "substitute" for the form of the word (compare: I thought about the form of the plan and the name of the hero).
The construction of a compositional sequence from grammatically different components (word form and sentence) is stylistically marked as a colloquial trait. The combination of the form of a word with a sentence is on the periphery of the modern literary language. It is allowed by his system, which does not necessarily require the same type of grammatical design of the components of the compositional series, but is prohibited for strictly codified speech spheres.

The combination of a phrase with a word form takes place in complex phrases such as an old orchard, digging a hole near the fence, in which the word form as a defining dependent component is not attached to a noun or verb directly, but to a combination of a noun or verb with a related word form, i.e. That is, connections are organized as follows:

old orchard digging a hole near the fence
All phrases in which two or more adjectives or participles agree with one noun, but are not in a compositional connection with each other, have such an organization: my best friend, an elegant summer dress, a new straw hat, the night rumbling sea. In this case, a compositional connection does not arise, because the syntactic positions of the agreed word forms are different: one (directly adjacent to the noun) refers to the noun, and the second (more distant) to the combination of the noun and the closest agreed word form.

The combination of a simple sentence with a complex sentence is observed in complex sentences of a complicated structure, in which a simple sentence depends on a complex sentence or a complex sentence as a whole depends on a simple sentence. For example: When we left the forest, it was damp, but there was no rain anymore; We knew that it would be damp in the forest, but there would be no rain - in the first example, a simple sentence We left the forest, formalized by a union when, as a subordinate part of the time, it depends on a compound sentence It was wet, but there was no rain anymore; in the second example, a compound sentence It will be damp in the forest, but the rain will not depend on the sentence We knew (an indicator of dependence is the union that).
The combination of a complex sentence with a complex sentence is also observed in complex sentences of a complicated construction: Everywhere was not a battlefield that he expected to see, but fields, meadows, troops, forests, smoke of fires, villages, mounds, streams; and no matter how much Pierre analyzed, he could not find a position in this lively area (L. T.); Prince Andrey even now did not understand how he could ever doubt the need to take an active part in life, just as a month ago he did not understand how the thought might have occurred to him to leave the village (L.T.) - highlighted words are indicators of the connection between complex sentences.

As you can see, the syntactic links in a word combination and a simple sentence partially coincide by the nature of the components (in both units, it is possible to combine the form of a word with the form of a word); syntactic connections in a complex sentence are specific: they connect such components, of which at least one is a sentence (neither in a phrase, nor in a simple sentence, connections between such components are impossible). This makes it possible to distinguish two levels in the field of syntactic links: a link at the level of a phrase and a simple sentence, and a link at the level of a complex sentence.
The modern Russian literary language has a variety of means to express syntactic connections; these means are different in a phrase and a simple sentence, on the one hand, and in a complex sentence, on the other.

The Russian language is a language of an inflectional structure, therefore, syntactic connections in a phrase and a simple sentence are expressed directly by those forms of words that convey not nominative, but syntactic meanings or both at the same time, namely: forms of case of nouns; number, gender and case of adjectives; persons, numbers and gender of conjugated forms of verbs.
To express the syntactic connections of the forms of indirect cases of nouns, pretexts are used: to believe in victory, to enter a house, to jump over a stream, prone to laziness, the strongest of the fighters, far from home, alone with oneself, victory over the enemy, a film about youth.
Syntactic connections at the level of a complex sentence, as well as some types of connection between the forms of words in a phrase and a simple sentence, express conjunctions, as well as their functional "substitutes", in particular relative pronouns (union words).
Word order is involved in the expression of syntactic links. However, in Russian, this is not the only means of expressing communication. Together with it, the syntagmatic division "works", combining syntactically related word forms into one syntagma. In addition, the direction of the syntactic relationship (which depends on what) is often uniquely determined by the ratio of the lexical meanings of related word forms.

The order of words (together with syntagmatic division) distinguishes the direction of the connection, showing the syntactic dependence of the forms of indirect cases of nouns, prepositional-case forms and adverbs from the verb or, on the contrary, from the noun; Wed: Near the door there was a vase with flowers on a table. - On a table near the door there was a vase with flowers; 3 and the bright stripe has already completely gone out with a hillock. - The bright stripe behind the hillock is already completely extinguished; Far from the road, far from the road, the forest was blackened with an uneven jagged ridge. - The forest not far from the road was black with an uneven jagged ridge.
It is generally accepted that the order of words participates in the expression of the direction of syntactic connections between identical forms of words, distinguishing between the determined and the determining (subject and predicate) in sentences of the type My father is a teacher; Teacher is my father; Moscow is the capital of the USSR; The capital of the USSR is Moscow. The word order performs a similar function in such sentences as: Being determines consciousness (cf .: Consciousness determines being); The oar touched the dress (cf .: The dress touched the oar); The mother loves her daughter (cf .: The daughter loves the mother), where he distinguishes between homonymous forms of the nominative and accusative cases. However, in such constructions, the very ratio of the meanings of words often shows the direction of the connection; Wed with the examples given, He is an eccentric; The clock counted the seconds, in which the word order does not directly express the syntactic connection, but only clarifies it. The same takes place in all cases typical of the Russian language (as an inflectional language), when a syntactic connection is conveyed by the form of a dependent word.

Intonation participates in the expression of syntactic connections at different levels. Intonational means divide the constructions of spoken speech into syntagmas, usually in accordance with syntactic links. Sometimes this division becomes the only indicator of the relationship. So, in the sentence She sang, danced well (we write it without punctuation marks in order to distract from the syntagmatic division), the syntactic connection of the word form is well unclear: she can equally relate to both singing and dancing. One or another syntagmatic division expresses a syntactic connection, in writing this is indicated by a comma. Wed: She sang well, danced. - She sang, danced well; the same in the sentences The forest drops its crimson dress (P.); A vendor of cured roach stuck out between the boxes (Ol.) \ But with the difference that in written speech the connections of the word forms crimson and roach are not indicated.

Syntactic links may remain unambiguously not expressed, as a result of which there is a homonymy of syntactic constructions (as in the last two examples), which is usually removed by the context.

In the history of linguistics, several distinctive features have been found, on the basis of which the types of syntactic connections can be determined, and several of their oppositions have been established. Those of the greatest cognitive value are those that take into account all types of syntactic compounds and, therefore, are applicable to all cases of syntactic connection. It is precisely such a general opposition that is the traditional opposition of the compositional connection to the subordinate one.
Composition and subordination oppose each other on the basis of the presence ~ absence of determination, that is, formal-line relations of the determined and defining, main and dependent components, "master" and "servant". When subordinate, these relations exist and the role of components in creating a structure is different, therefore, they are multifunctional. When composing, they are absent and the components are single-functional, they play the same role in creating a syntactic structure; Wed: a room under the stairs - a room and a staircase.
The single functionality of the components of the word combination, inherent in the compositional connection, does not imply their uniformity. Single-functional components, connected by a compositional connection, can be of different forms: harvest the crop on time and without losses; The chervonets was stained and covered in dust (Cr.); Having been friends with Vasily Ivanovich for many years and being repeatedly invited by him to visit him, I bothered to do this when the owner was not at home (Lid.). A special case of diversity is presented in constructions where the form of the word and the sentence are connected by a compositional connection: It is so good then for me to remember the overgrown pond and the hoarse sound of alder that somewhere I have a father and mother who do not care about all my poems (Her.).
The single functionality of the components of a phrase in a compositional connection presupposes their obligatory semantic uniplanarity. However, this unidirectionality may not be in the direction in which the syntactic tradition distinguishes between the members of the sentence. A compositional connection is also possible between such word forms that are different members of the sentence. This takes place in sentences, where a compositional connection can combine interrogative, negative, indefinite and generalizing pronouns that are different members of the sentence: Where, when, which great one chose the path to be trodden and easier? (V.M.); We all learned a little something and somehow (P.); No one will ever convince him of this; Everybody and everywhere said the same thing. Single functionality in such cases develops on the basis of the general role of the components connected by a compositional connection in the creation of interrogative, negative, indefinite or generalized semantics of the sentence.
The multifunctionality or single functionality of the components of a structure connected by a syntactic link is clearly revealed when the unit formed by them is included in a complicated structure as its dependent component. At the same time, the multifunctional components of the phrase, connected by a subordinate link, occupy different positions: the main component becomes the determinant of the newly introduced component, and the dependent component becomes the determinant of this determinant. This is verified by the possibility of collapsing the structure: in the resulting complex structure, the main component, while retaining the dependent, cannot be omitted. Wed: an interesting book - to read an interesting book - to read a book when the phrase "read interesting" is impossible, the same in a complex sentence: He remembered who gave the book to. - I demanded that he remember who gave the book to. - I demanded that he I remembered when the sentence “I demanded who he gave the book to” was impossible.
Meanwhile, single-functional components connected by a creative connection occupy one position in the composition of a complicated structure, where they are introduced as a defining component, which is proved by the possibility of omitting any of them; Wed: (and) newspapers, (and) magazines - subscribe (and) newspapers, (and) magazines - subscribe (and) newspapers - subscribe (and) magazines; also in a complex sentence: There are no necessary books, and there is not enough free time. - He is not studying now, because there are no necessary books and (because) there is not enough free time. - He is not studying now, because there are no needed books. - He is now does not study, because there is little free time.
Compositional and subordinate relationships also differ in the means of expression. There are two sides to this distinction.

The means of expressing a compositional connection are the same at different levels (at the level of a phrase and a simple sentence and at the level of a complex sentence), while the means of expressing a subordinate connection at different levels are significantly different.

1 Hereinafter, in similar cases, quotation marks indicate that these constructs are not allowed by the language system.

The compositional connection is not expressed by the forms of the word. The main means of conveying a compositional connection are creative conjunctions, which tend to form connections between any single-functional components of a syntactic unit: both between word forms and between sentences. With enumerative semantic relations, the compositional connection is expressed without alliances - by the word order and the multiplicity of the series: the components connected by the compositional connection are located directly one after the other and their single functionality is expressed by the very fact of the indefinite quantitative composition of the series (not necessarily two components).

Both the compositional and the subordinate relationship have common, that is, differential features presented both at the level of a phrase and a simple sentence, and at the level of a complex sentence.

A syntactic link is an expression of the relationship of elements in a syntactic unit, that is, it serves to express syntactic relations between words, secondly, it creates the syntactic structure of a sentence and a phrase, and thirdly, it creates conditions for the implementation of the lexical meaning of a word.

The main types (types) of syntactic communication are composition and submission (4, p. 6).

Composition and submission are structural, linguistic relations proper, designed to structurally form objective relations.

Submission conveys the relationship between the facts of the objective world in the form of a combination of two words, in which one is the main thing, the second is dependent.

The work conveys the relationship between the facts of the objective world in the form of a combination of words in which all words appear as equal in relation to each other.

On the basis of the main types of communication in the linguistic literature, the following is distinguished: 1) explanatory communication; 2) bi-directional communication; 3) determinant relationship.

Let's consider them in more detail.

An explanatory connection is characteristic only for word forms in a sentence. I.P. Raspopov in "The Structure of a Simple Sentence" (7, pp. 40-41) calls this connection an application, in "Grammar-80" it is noted that the explanatory connection is characterized as a kind of a compositional connection (§ 2084).

An explanatory link is a link of word forms, in which the second component is, as it were, "superimposed" on the first and, thanks to this, is likened to it in syntactic relations with other components of the sentence. The explanatory link reveals the actual explanatory syntactic relations expressing different names for the same phenomenon. An explanatory connection can be seen in cases that are usually interpreted as a separation of applications (in a broad sense, with the inclusion of not only accepted, but also subjective, adverbial components), it is characteristic of a sentence (I.P. Chirkina, part 4, p. 25) ...

Wed: She went out into the street in an old, very shabby dress. To the left, by the road, stood a lone tree.

A bidirectional connection is characteristic only for a sentence, it is a simultaneous connection of a dependent word form with two other pivotal word forms for it, expresses determinative and adverbial, determinative and object syntactic relations. (See: Grammar-80, § 2003, Chesnokova L.D., pp. 66-72, Raspopov I.P., pp. 37-40).

Example: Burying his face in a towel, he burst into tears, as he cried in this room when his little one was unjustly and cruelly punished by his father (Fedin).

The word form of the little one expresses at the same time an attributive relation to its word form (what is he?) And the adverbial temporal to the word form punished (when?).

Has the war made you superstitious? (Simonov).

The superstitious word form expresses both attributive and object syntactic relations.

Determinant connection - the connection of free attachment of a word form to a sentence as a whole, expresses object and adverbial syntactic relations (see the works of Shvedova N.Yu., Malashchenko V.P., etc.).

Examples: In a writer, a thinker, an artist and a critic must act at the same time. It is not enough for a great writer to know his native language.

Allocated units are an object determinant.

There was a smell of freshness from the balcony into the room. A warm wind blew through the open windows — an example of a contingent determinant.

Since syntactic links serve to express syntactic relations, the latter should be defined.

“Syntactic relations,” writes L. D. Chesnokova, “are those semantic relations that are qualified in school syntax as the grammatical meanings of a phrase; and non-union proposals, etc.

The relations between objects and phenomena of the real world are concretized and appear in language as relations between an object and an object, between a sign and an object, between a sign and a sign, between an action and an object, between an action and a sign, between an action and an action "(6, p. 9 ).

Structural, properly linguistic, relations are called upon to formalize in a certain way, to represent objective relations in language (ibid.).

The main thing to be recognized is the division of syntactic relations into predicative and non-predicative. Predicative syntactic relations are characteristic of the grammatical basis of the sentence: subject and predicate.

Non-predicative syntactic relations are divided into compositional and subordinate (attributive, object, adverbial). They can occur between the components of all syntactic units.

(For details, see the referenced literature).

Material from Uncyclopedia

In a phrase and a sentence, words are linked by syntactic links. From this side, a sentence and a phrase can be defined as strings of words linked by syntactic links. Unlike a phrase, a sentence is a chain of words that necessarily includes indicators of predicativity (see Predicativity and Semi-predicativeness), represented by the verb form. One-word sentences are a chain, consisting of one link, in which the ability to unfold is potentially laid (compare: dawn. - dawn early in June).

Suppose we are given a written text without punctuation marks, for example, in monuments of Old Russian writing, or in collections of punctuation exercises, or written by an illiterate person who cannot put punctuation marks. You can guess where one sentence ends and another begins: the border between sentences is where the chain of syntactic links between words is interrupted.

There are syntactic links outside of a simple sentence. In a complex sentence, there are connections between a word (as part of the main sentence) and a sentence (subordinate clause) or connections between sentences as a whole (main and subordinate clauses or simple sentences as part of a compound sentence). So, in a complex sentence You want to know what I did in the wild (M. Yu. Lermontov) the subordinate clause refers to the word know in the main part; in the complex sentence “The haze of the rainy night is thinning, and the pale day is already coming” (A.S. Pushkin), two simple sentences that make it up are linked by a syntactic link.

There are two types of syntactic links: submission and composition (see Submission and composition).

In a simple sentence, the main type of syntactic connection is subordination; words are hierarchically correlated according to the principle: "master - servant". The degree of complexity of its syntactic organization - the syntactic depth of a sentence - is created only on the basis of a subordinate relationship.

In a complex sentence, the composition plays the same role as subordination: complex sentences are built both on the basis of subordination and on the basis of the composition of simple sentences. In syntactic formations of a complicated structure, consisting of more than two elements, three types of combinations of syntactic links are possible: sequential subordination, heterogeneous subordination and subordination.

Sequential subordination is a combination of two (or more) syntactic relationships in which the first dependent element (dependent word or subordinate clause) refers to the main one, and the second dependent element to the first dependent, which is the main one for it, that is, the "master ", Etc. Thus, the connection combination has a chain character and can be schematically depicted as follows:

The number of syntactic units connected sequentially can be more than three.

According to the type of consistent subordination, phrases are built: a book with stories about the discovery of Siberia, a book with interesting pictures (the first dependent word - with pictures - is not after its "master", the main word, but after the second dependent word, that is, after its own " servants"); offer I like to read books about the discovery of Siberia; difficult sentence I am reading a book, which tells about how Siberia was discovered.

Heterogeneous subordination is such a combination of two (or more) subordinate ties, in which ~ one main element - "master" (word or main sentence) is referred to, defining it differently, several dependent - "servants" (words or subordinate clauses sentences), as, for example, in the phrase to go forward quickly, where the main word (go) is surrounded by dependent ones, each of which defines it in its own way: quickly gives a qualitative characteristic, forward designates a direction; in a simple sentence You can't easily catch a fish from a pond or in a complex sentence Although it was tempting, I still decided not to try to swim across the river, because the current is very strong. Schematically, heterogeneous subordination can be represented as follows:

Homogeneous subordination is a combination of subordination and compositional communication. There are two options for homogeneous subordination.

The first is characterized by the fact that one main element is related, equally defining it, two dependent, connected by a compositional connection, as, for example, in the phrase of a book about travel and adventure; in a sentence I am fond of not hockey, but chess, in a complex sentence The boy woke up when the sun was already high and the sea was blazing with blinding fire.

Schematically, the first variant of subordination can be represented as follows:

The second variant of subordination is characterized by the fact that the dependent element refers to the two main ones at once, connected by a compositional connection, as in the phrase our fathers and mothers; in a proposal The concept was approved and supported or in a complex proposal It is stuffy outside and smells of lime trees, where the circumstance on the street refers to the whole complex proposal that follows it. Schematically, the second variant of subordination can be represented as follows:

Syntactic connections are expressed by a whole complex of means.

The means of expressing compositional and subordinate connections are significantly different. The main indicator of an essay is compositional conjunctions (and, a, but, or, etc.); they express a compositional connection both between words and between sentences (compare: small and heavy [suitcase] - There is no happiness in the world, but there is peace and will (A.S. Pushkin); brother and sister - The ax knocked on the elastic roots And the pets of centuries fell without life (M. Yu. Lermontov).

The subordinate relationship between words and between sentences has different means of expression.

The main indicator of subordination between words in Russian is the form of the dependent word, the main indicator of subordination between sentences is subordinate unions and union words. So, in the sentence We dreamed about a trip to the sea, the word trip defines the word dreamed, denoting the object to which the action is directed; the form of the word trip tells us about this, it is used in the prepositional case with the preposition about. In a complex sentence We dreamed that we would go to the sea, the subordinate clause refers to the word dreamed, defining it by meaning in exactly the same way as the word about a trip does in a simple sentence; this link is indicated by the union what.

In the expression of syntactic relationships between words, word order takes part: the dependent word is usually placed next to the main one. So, in the sentence Yamu, Sasha dug at the fence, the word at the fence defines the word pit (you can ask which one?), And in the sentence At the fence, Sasha dug a hole, the word at the fence defines the word dug (and answers the question where?).

Sometimes syntactic connections are two-valued, and on this basis syntactic homonymy arises. The sentence Vendor of cured vobla stuck out between the boxes can be understood in different ways due to the fact that it does not express which word the word vobloi refers to: to the noun trader (trader with what?) Or to the verb stuck out (stuck out like?); compare sentences Between the boxes a trader of dried roach stuck out and a trader stuck between the boxes, in which it is clearly shown (using word order) which word the word roach refers to.

Before talking about the types of syntactic connection between the components of a phrase, members of sentences, independent sentences, parts of a complex sentence and parts of a complex syntactic whole, we first present some general information about the varieties of syntactic communication.

Compositional and subordinate connections are most often contrasted. They differ from each other in that in the first case, there are no formal indicators between the components of syntactic units, indicating the dependence of these components, the subordination of one of them to the other, and in the second, there are such indicators. In this regard, they say that with a compositional connection, the components are single-functional, and with a subordinate connection, they are multi-functional.

At the same time, single functionality does not mean uniformity. For example: In countries with a parliamentary form of government, the position of the head of government separated from the function of the head of state and may be called in various ways — here the predicates are in a compositional connection, but one of them is expressed by a short passive participle, and the other by a combination of a modal verb and an infinitive; The individual obtains citizenship from birth or as a result of providing such a state- here the circumstances are also in a compositional relationship, therefore, they are one-functional, but differently shaped: accordingly, a combination of a noun with a preposition from and acting as a pretext by the combination as a result together with a noun.

The means of expressing the compositional and subordinate connection also differ. First, in the sense that the means of compositional communication, as a rule, are equally used to connect the components of all syntactic units (phrases and sentences, simple and complex), and the means of subordinate communication are usually differentiated in relation to the components, on the one hand, of phrases , and on the other - offers. For example: Fathers and Sons; legislature and executive branch: Legislature is a collection of powers to make laws, and the executive branch is directly related to these laws. Here is the union and connects the components of syntactic units of different levels.

At the same time, union words can be used to connect components of complex sentences only: Demagogy — statements, in which lies are used to achieve political goals.

Secondly, the subordinate connection is expressed by the forms of the word, and this is not characteristic of the compositional connection; it is characterized mainly by compositional conjunctions, less often - word order and a significant number of single-functional components: Historical varieties of dictatorship — this is tyranny, and Asian despotism, and Caesarism and the dictatorship of the proletariat, and fascism, and authoritarianism, and totalitarianism, etc. Compositional and subordinate relationships have their own characteristics, which are irrelevant to each other.

A compositional connection (composition) is a type of connection between members of a simple sentence and between parts of a complex sentence, which are considered as equivalent components, grammatically independent from each other. The writing takes place, for example:

1) between homogeneous members of the sentence: Citizens and their associations must comply with the Constitution of the Russian Federation;
2) between parts (sentences) included in a compound sentence: These provisions are called the ten commandments of public relations., and they begin or end most of the American textbooks on this discipline.

True, there is another point of view, according to which "any sentence with compositional components can be represented as the addition of several sentences without composition: This shop sells candy and tea = This shop sells candy + This shop sells tea ... Therefore, the syntactic forms of the subordinate connection are considered in the section on word combinations, and the forms of the compositional connection - in the section on homogeneous members "[Krylova, Maksimov and Shiryaev, 1999. S. 597].

Distinguish between closed and open compositional communication, which depends on the number of connected single-functional components. With a closed compositional connection, there are only two components, for example: Plants and factories stopped due to lack of electricity; Workers and employees were left without a salary; After a long separation, friends met, and there was no end to the joy. These are semantic complete series, often including semantically juxtaposed or related words that act as headings: in L. Tolstoy "War and Peace", K. Simonov " Friends and enemies ", "Days and nights", "The Living and the Dead". With a closed compositional connection, the union is necessarily used.

With an open compositional communication, a number of combined single-functional components and syntactic units may include a strictly unlimited number of them, which largely depends on the speaker's will or speech situation: С for years they calmed down , got married on ugly and jealous wives, gave birth to children, regretted about thoughtlessly wasted youth and envied father(V. Panova). An open syntactic connection can be expressed in a simple sentence without alliance and with the help of conjunctions. The same can be demonstrated on the material of complex sentences: ... shining in the sun, the snow lies; / The transparent forest one turns black, / And the spruce turns green through the frost, / And the river shines under the ice(A. Pushkin) ; At the bottom, the sand is whiter than chalk, / And the air is drunk, like wine, / And the pink body of the pine trees / At sunset, naked(A. Akhmatova).

A subordinate relationship (subordination) is a type of relationship between members of a sentence, as well as between subordinate clauses included in a complex sentence. Subordination indicates a relationship between components that are grammatically unequal, when one of them (a member of a sentence or a sentence) is independent in relation to the other, dependent on it. Three types of subordination are distinguished between the members of the proposal: coordination, management and adherence.

When agreed: if the dependent word is an adjective, pronoun-adjective, ordinal number or participle, then it is likened to the dominant (always noun) in gender, number and case (<alternative proposal) or in number and case ( alternative proposals); if the dependent word is a noun, then only in case ( armchair-bed, novel-newspaper). In the latter case, it can be difficult to determine on a grammatical basis where the main word is and where the dependent one is, since the components of such phrases can equally act in both roles. To differentiate them, it is proposed to use, when possible, a semantic feature: a noun with a broader concept should be recognized as a defined word, and a noun with a narrower meaning as a defining one. For example, in the phrase cabinetmaker the first word from this point of view is definable and, therefore, the main, and the second is defining, and therefore dependent. In any case, the dependent word conveys attributive relations: Unpublished laws not accepted.

The agreement between the subject and the predicate is of a special nature. In some cases, there really is an assimilation of the predicate to the subject in gender, number and case ( St. Petersburg — cultural Centre country), or in number and case ( St. Petersburg — cultural capital country), or only in case ( St. Petersburg — this is Attraction , associated with the history of the country of the last three centuries). You can give examples of assimilation of the predicate to the subject and in the case of expressing the first in nominal forms: Moscow is beautiful. The city is beautiful. Both capitals are beautiful... This our success... it our achievement... These successes and our achievements. Thus, one can speak of agreement (assimilation) when a nominal predicate is used in a sentence.

If an unchangeable part of speech or a form that does not have signs of gender, number or case acts as the subject, then in such sentences there is no and cannot be agreement between the predicate and the subject, primarily due to the immutability of the words acting as the subject: "Guard!" rang out in the alley; Compose poetry meant for him to confess to people; Die for their people - this is the lot of the elect.

In transitional cases of a subordinate syntactic connection between the main members of a sentence, the subject is expressed by a declined noun, and the predicate is expressed by the conjugated form of the verb: The President approves the bill; The President approved the bill. Syntaxists recognize here a double multidirectional dependence: I.p. the subject-noun requires the statement of the predicate-verb and the same person, and in the past tense and in the same gender; a predicate-verb requires the use of a subject-noun in I. p. This is the relationship of interdependence (coordination), which represents the coordination of the predicate with the subject and, at the same time, the control of the subject by the predicate.

The relationship of interdependence in the given case is akin to the relationship between the components of phrases, which include a numeral that changes by gender, in the form of I. p. and V. p. and a noun in R.p .: two buddies — two friends, one and half year — a week and a half. As you can see, here there is a dependence of the numerals on the nouns that determine their gender, therefore, gender agreement; at the same time, the numerals control the corresponding nouns, since they require their setting in the r.p., and singular. What is common in the nature of the connections between the main members of the sentence in the first case and the components of phrases in the second is that control there and there does not come from the word in all its forms, but from a certain form of this word: either the personal form of the verb, or the form I. ... and V. p. So, when using other case forms of the number, it does not control the noun, but agrees with it: two friends, two buddies etc.

From what has been said, it is obvious that the agreement may be complete or incomplete. Complete is agreement, in which the word being defined determines the use of the defining one in all possible grammatical forms. In case of incomplete agreement, the subordinate component is likened to the main one only in some of the possible grammatical forms. For example: Mother got up sleepy (agreement in gender, number and case) and Mother got up sleepy (agreement only in gender and number, but not in case).

When managing as a form of subordinate connection, the main component of the phrase determines, to one degree or another, the formulation of the dependent word in a certain case form without a preposition or with a preposition. This main component can be a word of any significant part of speech: the verb ( admire the painting), noun ( admiration for the painting), adjective ( fit for service), adverb ( perpendicular to plane). Hence, management is called verbal, substantive, adjective or adverbial (adverbial).

Depending on the degree of conditionality of the form of the dependent word from the main one (whether it is obligatory or not obligatory), strong and weak control are distinguished. As noted in the encyclopedia "Russian language", "strong U. is due to the fact that the main word has such lexical and grammatical properties that it requires a dependent word that is in certain semantic relations with the main one": hammer in the puck, abstract from the masses, trust in fate. Strong management is also called predictable and necessary. With weak control, the dependent word is either optional (cf. We sent a fax in the evening and We sent a fax), or the choice of the form of the dependent word is more free (cf .: go around the corner, but go behind the house, go to a friend; leave the stage, but get off with a smile, get off without a smile). Verb prefixes per- and with- (co-) define here the use of nouns with prepositions, respectively per, To and with, with, without, requiring after themselves different case forms with different meanings. Strong and weak governance also differ in the nature of the relationships they express. Strong control expresses object and replenishing relationships, as well as their contamination, with the possible inclusion of circumstantial relationships ( get involved in computer science, accustomed to difficulties, be in oblivion, wait until morning). Weak control expresses adverbial relations, which in some cases can be contaminated with attributive ( to use a computer, glory to the heroes, honor to veterans). With a purely adverbial relationship between the main and dependent words, the connection between them is considered by many linguists as an adjacency. Moreover, some believe that dependent words in such cases are not formally associated with other members of the sentence at all, but refer to it as a whole, especially if they appear at the beginning of the sentence. Such dependent words are called determinatives: On Sundays there was a special melancholy(V. Shukshin); Two hours before dawn Uralov announced the immediate formation of all personnel of the division in the barracks(A. Kozhevnikov); In this locality ,deforested , it was impossible to find pillars for the arrangement of the usual street network; AND with the economic , and from a technical point of view such a solution to the issue of power transmission was the only possible and correct(A. Platonov).

Adjacency is a kind of subordinate connection, which is expressed not by assimilating the subordinate word to the main one in form, as in the definition, not by the conditionality of the subordinate word in the form determined by the main one, as in control, but by the location of the subordinate word in relation to the main one, its semantic and grammatical dependence on the latter. Adjacency is the addition to any significant part of speech of an unchangeable word (adverb, indefinite form of a verb, gerunds, comparative adjectives) and expresses adverbial relations ( leave immediately; lighting up, to tell) or determinants ( talking frankly, the bar is heavier, a desire to work), replenishing ( hope to meet). For example: Citizen's rights are directly acting; Deputy candidates not entitled to study entrepreneurial activity from the moment of their registration; By registering , voters get ballot paper; One of the variants of the direct method of teaching foreign languages is still used., called direct method in a new way.

In the above sentences, adjoining members of the sentence are in close proximity to those to which they refer, be they single words ( directly acting; not entitled to study; by registering, get) or compound names ( direct method in a new way), consist of semantic and grammatical dependence on them, act in the role of circumstances ( directly acting; by registering, get) or inconsistent definition ( have the right to study, direct method in a new way), are included with them in one syntagma.

In those cases when the prepositional-case forms of nouns can be used for different parts of speech and, therefore, do not depend on them, we can also talk about the contiguity of these forms: stay near the metro, stop next to the metro. They usually express an adversarial relationship.

As a rule, attention is paid to the following cases of abutment:

■ when possessive pronouns of 3 liters are used as a dependent word. his, her, their not having, as personal pronouns ( greeted whom? his, her, them), case forms, and therefore not participating in the expression of a syntactic connection: its report (lecture, performance, messages), her report (lecture, performance, messages), their report (lecture, performance, messages);

■ when a toponymic name or some other proper names act as a dependent word, especially if they are enclosed in quotation marks: Lake Baskunchak(cf .: on Lake Baskunchak), the village of Vetla (to the village of Vetla), village Bugry (from the village of Bugry), station "Gostiny Dvor" (at the station "Gostiny Dvor"), train Yekaterinburg — Sochi (from the train Yekaterinburg — Sochi), route Earth — Mars(on route Earth — Mars); here the syntactic connection is expressed by the location of dependent words in relation to the defined ones, the combination of both in one syntagma, their semantic correlation.

In addition, the components that have the possibility of such a connection due to their semantics enter into the syntactic connection of the adjacency. For example, gerunds, denoting an additional action of the subject, can only be combined with a verb, verbs in the infinitive form are usually combined with words containing a modal shade ( can be blackballed, desire to rule, must introduce myself), as well as with phase verbs ( began to teach, continue to rampage, finished discussing) and verbs of motion ( went to rest, ran in for a snack).

Subordination and affiliation are varieties of subordinate communication.

Subordination is the relationship between members of a simple sentence subordinate to the dominant member ( Propaganda or agitation is not allowed, exciting social ,racial ,national or religious hatred and enmity. Constitution RF), as well as between subordinate clauses subordinate to the dominant clause as part of a complex ( Need to define, under what conditions do regions gain greater independence and where is the limit of decentralization ).

Can be subordinated:

■ homogeneous members of the sentence ( Shubin was known as a man thorough and business. Yu. Sergeev) and homogeneous subordinate clauses (A renowned public relations researcher writes, that there are about five hundred definitions of this discipline alone and their number is growing );

■ heterogeneous members of the proposal ( At the exhibition can be seen converted for lifeguards car ) and inhomogeneous subordinate clauses ( When she passed the window , it seemed to her, that the girl is laughing. S. Antonov). In a complex clause, clauses can refer to the same member of the dominant clause ( Everything understood , that a new time has come and) and to its various members ( Everything understood ,that a new time has come ,understood ,that you need to change your attitude towards life ). With subordinate sentences, the subordinate union may or may not be repeated, which depends on the context (the number of subordinate sentences, their grammatical structure): The film actress said at a press conference, what filming of a new film ends, (what ) it will soon be on the screen and (what ) the audience will have the opportunity to get acquainted with interesting directorial work.

Submission can be sequential, when one dependent part of a complex sentence refers to the main part, another dependent part refers to the first, etc .: Only a twisted pine tree will stop, may be, the glance of the unknown descendant , who is unaware , Certainly, will, from what so whimsical the bend of the resinous trunk(G. Semenov).

Accession (connecting connection) is a type of connection between the members of a sentence, as well as between sentences included in a complex sentence, in which the second component is in relation to the first additional judgment, clarification, explanation, development of a previously expressed thought. For example: We we can meet tomorrow. If you want to; Screams came from the next apartment, noise, screeching. And then this monotonous drum music.

The main types of connecting structures are:

■ non-union connecting structures, which are linked to the main offers by means of a connecting pause. For example: Workers from various fields were on strike. Even transport workers; Tax policy was discussed at the last government meeting. They also talked about a new military doctrine;

■ union connecting structures, which are associated with the dominant proposal using compositional and subordinate unions. For example: Let's define the main categories of public relations as a scientific and academic discipline, its most significant problems, as well as the actual subject of its activity; The Minister of Defense is not playing war games. But no less dangerous; People need to compensate for the losses they have suffered. And it will be fair; Voters voted for young leaders. Because the former deputies did not live up to their hopes. There are also special connecting unions: and yes, but also, but, and besides, and therefore etc. For example: The elections took place in the republic. And moreover, the majority of the population took part in them.; A decree was issued on the formation of local self-government bodies. Albeit with a great delay.

Attachment is used as a special stylistic device that allows you to give more information while saving speech means. Joining is especially characteristic of colloquial speech, which is associated with the flow of thought, the process of speaking, when there is a need for more and more clarification of what was said earlier. For example: And so they met this deputy in a restaurant, and even Mishka got drunk. Before that ,that he started courting some blonde (V. Belov).

What combinations of syntactic connections between simple sentences are characteristic of a polynomial complex sentence with different types of connection? Give 2 examples of multi-term complex sentences with different types of connection.

Answers:

subordinate, compositional