Social philosophy: main problems, categories and stages of development. Examination: The emergence and development of social philosophy Social philosophy the subject of research stages of formation

33. The main stages of development of socio-philosophical thought.

The comprehension of society as an integral organism continued throughout the development of philosophical thought. In the history of the development of socio-philosophical thought, 3 main stages can be distinguished:

From antiquity to the 19th century ( when there was an accumulation of socio-philosophical ideas). For Plato and Aristotle, society is a state. They discussed the ideal forms of government, the state was the starting point in which a variety of phenomena of social life were considered. T. Hobbes and J. Locke played an important role in the development of social philosophy. Both philosophers reject the Aristotelian identity of the general and the particular in the conditions of human society, from their point of view, all people are primarily guided by their own interests, and only then are united into a state. Therefore, they proceeded from the recognition of the ascent from nature to society and call it the natural state. About this Hobbespecified in the work "Leviathan". On this basis, a deeper comprehension of the essence of society, as an integral organism, and the definition of its functional basic connections gradually begins. Jean Jacques Rousseau examines the problem of social inequality and the origin of social inequality. The French thinker Saint-Simon was the first to pay attention to the development of industry, forms of property and class in society. The economic life of society becomes the subject of study by A. Smith. So society increasingly became a special subject of philosophical reflection. In the course of the philosophical revolution, a special subject area of ​​social philosophy stands out - this is the philosophy of history.

19th century(when powerful integration processes take place and integral concepts of social philosophy are formed). Hegel ("Philosophy of History") developed a philosophical picture of society, dialectics of man and society, amazing in its depth, richness of ideas. There is not a single major problem that would not have been comprehended by Hegel: the structure of society as a whole, labor, property, morality, family, management system, the form of government, the relationship between social and individual consciousness, the world-historical process. That. with Hegel, a breakthrough in the knowledge of the philosophical foundations of society, its history and the social being of man is associated. All these problems are considered from the standpoint of objective idealism. Marx is a material understanding of history. In his concept, society appeared as a complex formation, the basis of which is social production. The laws of society are viewed as objective, and history as a progressive process.

from the 20th century(this is a period when new splits in the philosophical analysis of society along a broad front, many new directions are taking place). Durkheim substantiated the idea of ​​social solidarity on the basis of the division of labor. M. Weber creates the theory of ideal types. In the 20th century, sociology developed not so much in the direction of social depths as it tried to penetrate deeper into various states and strata of society, the meaning of history, i.e. comprehension of its individual phenomena and facets.

Topic 2. MAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPMENTSOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

2.1. Socio-philosophical thought in the ancient era ..... 19

2.2. Socio-philosophical views of the Middle Ages ........ 29

2.3. Socio-philosophical views of modern times ... 37

2.4. Classical German social philosophy ........... 47

2.5. Russian social philosophy of the 18th - 20th centuries ............ 70

2.6. Western social philosophy of the second half of the XIX - XX centuries ......................................... 94

The development of socio-philosophical thought took place on the basis of a number of laws. Social philosophy reflects the real process of human life, their mode of production, and therefore is determined primarily by the socio-economic formation (a certain stage of development of the essence of mankind). For this reason, it is necessary to distinguish between the socio-philosophical teachings of slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and socialist societies. Since socio-philosophical teachings arise and develop in a class society, they also reflect the struggle of classes. As part of the spiritual culture of society, social philosophy develops in an indissoluble connection with material and spiritual culture, human experience, bears an imprint due to the level of development of specific scientific knowledge.

The most important regularity in the development of social and philosophical thought is the movement - through numerous delusions, difficulties and illusions - towards an increasingly realistic and deep understanding of the essence of social phenomena, i.e. ultimately the movement towards a scientific social philosophy, emerging in the middle of the XIX century. Such a philosophy, proceeding from the requirements of an objective approach and the recognition of the objective laws of the development of society, is the materialist understanding of history. The peculiarity of the scientific concept of man and history is that it clarifies - based on the data of the entire system of sciences - the relationship of man to nature

of the infinite world, its place in a single lawful world process, reveals the essence of man as a special part of the infinite world, as a universal material being in a universal (practical and theoretical) relation to the infinite world, and on this basis seeks to understand the real essence and true meaning of history humanity, its global perspectives. However, it would be a mistake to believe that neither the materialists nor the idealists of the past contributed anything of theoretical value to social philosophy. As will be shown below, certain scientific achievements, certain elements of scientific character are inherent in various areas of social and philosophical thought. In modern world socio-philosophical thought, as well as in general philosophy, an increasingly noticeable tendency of convergence of views towards scientific social philosophy is revealed. The objective course of history, the deep tendencies in the development of society ultimately determine the movement of socio-philosophical thought towards a scientific understanding of man, society, the laws of social development, the meaning of human existence.

The immediate source of the formation of socio-philosophical views are the initial observations of nature and society, which are rudiments of sciences; mythology, or a system of figurative, fantastic ideas about the world; religion as a system of fantastic ideas based on belief in God (s).

The study of the history of socio-philosophical thought is necessary primarily because without this it is impossible to understand the modern scientific interpretation of man and his history. In addition, the development of social philosophy is a movement from the simplest ideas about the essence of man and his history, inherent in myths, to more and more complex ones, right up to scientific ones.

Myth and Religion - Preceding Philosophy Forms of Viewto the world and man. Myth is the most ancient (archaic) view of the world, society and man, which existed among all peoples and has a syncretic character. Elements of the emerging forms of spiritual culture are intricately intertwined in it: philosophy, art, morality, religion, science. The source of the myth is, on the one hand, the powerlessness of man in the face of the phenomena of nature and human life, on the other, his dream of mastering them, the hope of conquering them by will and labor, the conviction of the possibility of creating independent and fast-acting tools of labor, as well as flying vehicles. This optimism permeates the so-called proper etiological

myths explaining the origin of cultural elements: fire, crafts, agriculture, rituals, customs, etc.

In mythology, the actual process of the formation and development of the human race, its inherent "essential properties": labor, thinking, communication, freedom, individuality, and so on is captured in a peculiar form. This process is reflected in three main ideas: emergence(start), cyclicality(change of centuries and generations), end(updates). So, in cosmogonic myths, as well as in the "Theogony" of Hesiod, we are talking about the emergence of a natural way from the chaos of everything that exists, including man, in anthropogonic myths - about the origin in one way or another of the human race or individual peoples (in later cosmogonic and anthropogonic myths that developed in early class society, the idea of ​​the emergence of the world and humanity is supplanted by the idea of ​​creation). The initial stage, or right time, i.e. the distant mythical past is portrayed either as a state of miserable existence of people living like ants in caves (the myth of Prometheus), or as a "golden age" ("Works and Days"), when "people lived like gods, not knowing grief, not knowing the works , and a bountiful harvest of themselves gave grain-growing lands "(Hesiod). Natural, assigning way of human existence opposed properly human, producing a way of existence associated with the creation of cultural goods. At the same time, as it developed, difficulties also grow: each subsequent century turned out to be poorer and harder for mankind than the previous one, and the iron age became the worst and hardest of all, when "works and sorrows never stop, not at night" (Hesiod). However, despite the strengthening in human existence of those negative moments that people in the past did not know about, in the future it is still possible to "return" to the golden age that existed in the past.

The primitive consciousness operates with the present, but thanks to two-tier(the presence of concrete and explanatory thinking in it) understands it as the unity of the past and the future. The life of a primitive society, including a more developed agricultural one, was determined by natural and biological cycles (regular repetitions of biocosmic rhythms), reflected in ritual practice. Accordingly, time, "history" was divided into closed cycles, in which, however, there was element of linearity, expressed in the division of time into mythical and empirical, or historical. The "historical cycle" therefore includes the idea

worldview antique philosophy space

It is even more difficult to define social philosophy, since this area of ​​knowledge directly affects the interests of people, their understanding of the world and themselves in this world. Social philosophy has a long history, but a relatively recent history. If the philosophy of history as an independent discipline stood out in the complex of philosophical sciences at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, then for social philosophy the second third of the 20th century became the time of self-determination. Social philosophy has its origins in Antiquity. Its appearance is associated with the names of Socrates and Plato, who for the first time set the task of philosophical understanding of society and its individual spheres. As for the philosophy of history, its beginning in Europe was laid by Augustine Aurelius (IV century AD) with his famous work "On the City of God." The Augustinian interpretation of the historical process prevailed in European philosophy until the 18th century. But the formation of social philosophy as a separate branch of knowledge dates back to the middle of the 19th century. At this time, the formation of sociology and psychology takes place. Scientists abandon the "speculative", based only on thinking, rational knowledge of the world in favor of experimental, rational knowledge. They highlight the active role of a person who masters the secrets of the universe not with the help of metaphysical mental constructions, divorced from real life, but through precise scientific methods. A century and a half that have passed since then have not clarified the problem of the essence of both philosophy in general and social philosophy in particular. And to this day in literature there is no unity in the definition of social philosophy and its subject.

Abroad, social philosophy is understood as a philosophical study of the issues of human social behavior: from the role of individual opinions to the legitimacy of laws, from the social contract to the criteria of revolutions, from the functions of everyday actions to the influence of science on culture, from demographic changes to the collective order in the aspen's nest. In Russia, social philosophy is defined as an autonomous research area of ​​philosophy that analyzes society, history and man as a subject of activity and sociocultural interactions.

Social philosophy is a philosophical study of society, considered in its historical development. Social philosophy studies the structure of social systems, their functioning and evolution, social institutions and social values, society as a whole and its development. The tasks of social philosophy also include the study of human nature and its changes in the course of history, the identification of the meaning of history and, as far as possible, its main trends. Social philosophy pays special attention to the study of modern society and the prospects for its development in the foreseeable future. Modern social philosophy should also provide an analysis and criticism of existing social concepts like liberalism, conservatism and socialism. And finally, social philosophy outlines its place among other sciences about society, explores the features of social cognition in general and the possibility of achieving objective knowledge about society and its history.

The object of socio-philosophical analysis is society - local or humanity. Society is the object of analysis of various sciences: history, sociology, philosophy of history, social philosophy, etc. But each of them has its own subject of study, ie. its aspect in the study of society, which means general and specific methods of social cognition.

The subject of social philosophy is the relationship between a society of people and a public person. In this respect, society acts as a social being, and a person in the form of social consciousness. The latter means that a social person is people united in a clan, ethnos, people, civilization, etc., and not an individual. With this approach, society, its cognition and social consciousness, as well as social practice, acquire an obvious specificity in comparison with other sciences and forms of worldview that study society. Thus, social philosophy is an integral part of philosophy that studies the relationship between society and man in the form of interaction between social being and social consciousness.

The subject of social philosophy is the relationship between a social person, on the one hand, and social institutions, public spheres, social formations, social civilizations, etc. - with another. The essence of a social person in this case is social consciousness and social practice, which are carried out in the listed social forms. In this regard, it is appropriate to emphasize that social philosophy studies not social being and social consciousness in their separation, but the process of their functioning and development in various social forms (institutions, spheres, formations, etc.). Therefore, an important problem of social philosophy is the study of society as an integral natural and social system, the most important elements of which are social life and social consciousness of a person.

First of all, social philosophy studies social being, which is interpreted in different socio-philosophical systems in different ways. Social being is a unity of objective (material) and subjective (ideal), which makes it difficult to understand and interpret. We have to concretize the methods of philosophical knowledge: social connection and social development, social contradictions, social laws, the relationship between social necessity and freedom, etc. And the point here is not only in the corresponding adjective "public", but mainly in revealing the essence of new socio-philosophical concepts. Therefore, the analysis of the characteristics of social cognition should precede the analysis of other problems of social philosophy.

Due to the complexity of the object under study, several directions of analysis have arisen in the history of social philosophy: historical idealism, historical materialism, historical realism. They solve in different ways the problem of the relationship between social life and social consciousness and other related problems. All these directions are equivalent from the point of view of social truth, i.e. are hypotheses that have their cognitive value in different societies and in different historical periods. For example, historical materialism prevailed in socialist societies, and historical idealism in bourgeois societies. Now both humanity and social philosophy are rising to a new level of social cognition.

Social philosophy studies humanity as a set of local (separate) societies that are mutually connected with each other. In this case, the concepts of "humanity" and "society" of which it consists are different. Societies are integral systems, a kind of natural-social organisms, consisting of many spheres-systems: geographic, demographic, economic, etc. These social systems are analyzed from the point of view of their constituent parts and functions in the composition of social organisms. Already when studying this part of social philosophy, it becomes clear what a complex formation society is, and how little we know about it.

One of the problems of social philosophy is the process of development of societies and humanity. It analyzes the main subjects of social development (individuals, elites, classes and nations); types of social development (cyclical, linear, spiral); features of the process of social development (evolutionary, revolutionary, co-evolutionary); social progress in all the complexity of its course (criteria, necessity, price, etc.), the driving forces and prospects of social progress, the ratio of the conscious and the spontaneous in social development.

An important problem of social philosophy is the study of the forms of communication between the main spheres of the social organism, i.e. study of ways of integrating elements of social life. These forms of integration are the formations of societies (social formations), which act as a kind of metasystems. We distinguish three types of such metasystems: political, economic, mixed. The same societies correspond to them. Within the framework of these formations of societies, forms of social consciousness corresponding to them arise, in which economic, political, mixed life is cognized.

Social philosophy has long been concerned with the problem of qualitative stages in the development of societies and humanity, which is associated with the concept of culture and civilization. In cultural studies, the problem of culture is studied in more detail, as an independent characteristic of human society and man. Within the framework of social philosophy, culture is considered as a qualitative characteristic of society, diversity and stages of development of culture - civilizations. In this part of civilization, they are studied both as characteristics of local societies (Egyptian, Western European, Chinese, Russian, etc.), and as characteristics of the stages of human development: pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial.

Brief summary: the subject of social philosophy is the subject of social and philosophical activity (i.e., the activity of social philosophers as subjects of social philosophy). The definition of the subject of social philosophy should be carried out only in conjunction with the definition of other elements of socio-philosophical activity (its subject, purpose, method, etc.). The development of those branches of philosophical activity that are prerequisites for social philosophy is of decisive importance for defining the subject of social philosophy. Accordingly, the subject of social philosophy is defined in the categories of those philosophical doctrines (directions) that reach such a degree of development that they form a specialized area of ​​socio-philosophical research.

The functions of social philosophy should be viewed in relation to the society in which it exists and to the student who studies it: these functions are close, but not identical. The main functions of social philosophy: cognitive, diagnostic, prognostic, educational, projective.

The most important function of social philosophy is, first of all, cognitive. It consists in studying the relationship between social consciousness and social life, in developing a socio-philosophical theory that society needs. This work is carried out by social philosophers. The development of the theory includes the definition of the main categories and concepts of social philosophy, such as society, formation of society, economy, civilization, etc., as well as bringing them into a certain system, built on the basis of some principles.

The diagnostic function of social philosophy consists in analyzing society from the point of view of its current (crisis) state, assessing development options, their causes, methods and plans.

The diagnostic function of social philosophy allows you to analyze the causes of conflicts in various spheres of society, understand their causes and outline a socio-philosophical way of resolving them.

The predictive function of social philosophy is expressed in the development of well-grounded forecasts about the development trends of societies and humanity, social contradictions and conflict processes in the future. This presupposes an analysis of the development trends of the main social subjects (formations of society, social communities, institutions, organizations), the dynamics of interests, etc. Such an opportunity is provided by the implementation of the cognitive and diagnostic functions of social philosophy. The result of the predictive function is a forecast that sets out possible (real and formal) scenarios for the development of a given society and humanity. These scenarios include reasonable goals of social development and real ways to implement them.

The educational function of social philosophy is expressed in its study by students, leaders, politicians. Knowledge of the foundations of social philosophy allows you to use it to prevent and resolve conflicts, to understand the main trends in the development of society and humanity.

The projective function of social philosophy is to develop a project for transforming reality in the interests of some social community (group, class, stratum, nation). This transformation can relate to changes in a social institution, state, formation, civilization and include the goal, subjects, means, timing, pace of transformation (for example, the Marxist-Leninist project of the socialist reorganization of Russia). In this case, social philosophy acquires an ideological character, plays the role of an exculpatory instance for some political decisions.

The functions of social philosophy are dialectically interconnected. Each of them, one way or another, includes them in its content. That is, the socio-philosophical study of social processes will be the more successful, the more carefully attention is paid to each of the functions.

Thus, the main task of social philosophy is to reveal the essence of society, to characterize it as a part of the world, different from its other parts, but connected with them into a single world universe. At the same time, social philosophy acts as a special theory that has its own categories, laws and research principles.

The development of socio-philosophical thought took place on the basis of a number of laws. Social philosophy reflects the real process of human life, their mode of production, and therefore is determined primarily by the socio-economic formation (a certain stage of development of the essence of mankind). For this reason, it is necessary to distinguish between the socio-philosophical teachings of slave-owning, feudal, capitalist and socialist societies. Since socio-philosophical teachings arise and develop in a class society, they also reflect the struggle of classes. As part of the spiritual culture of society, social philosophy develops in an indissoluble connection with material and spiritual culture, human experience, bears an imprint due to the level of development of specific scientific knowledge.

The most important regularity in the development of social and philosophical thought is the movement - through numerous delusions, difficulties and illusions - towards an increasingly realistic and deep understanding of the essence of social phenomena, i.e. ultimately the movement towards a scientific social philosophy, emerging in the middle of the XIX century. Such a philosophy, proceeding from the requirements of an objective approach and the recognition of the objective laws of the development of society, is the materialist understanding of history. The peculiarity of the scientific concept of man and history is that it clarifies - based on the data of the entire system of sciences - the relationship of man to the nature of the infinite world, his place in a single natural world process, reveals the essence of man as a special part of the infinite world, as a universal material being, located in a universal (practical and theoretical) relation to the infinite world, and on this basis seeks to understand the real essence and true meaning of the history of mankind, its global perspectives. However, it would be a mistake to believe that neither the materialists nor the idealists of the past contributed anything of theoretical value to social philosophy. As will be shown below, certain scientific achievements, certain elements of scientific character are inherent in various areas of social and philosophical thought. In modern world socio-philosophical thought, as well as in general philosophy, an increasingly noticeable tendency of convergence of views towards scientific social philosophy is revealed. The objective course of history, the deep tendencies in the development of society ultimately determine the movement of socio-philosophical thought towards a scientific understanding of man, society, the laws of social development, the meaning of human existence.

The immediate source of the formation of socio-philosophical views are the initial observations of nature and society, which are rudiments of sciences; mythology, or a system of figurative, fantastic ideas about the world; religion as a system of fantastic ideas based on belief in God (s).

The study of the history of socio-philosophical thought is necessary primarily because without this it is impossible to understand the modern scientific interpretation of man and his history. In addition, the development of social philosophy is a movement from the simplest ideas about the essence of man and his history, inherent in myths, to more and more complex ones, right up to scientific ones.

Myth and religion are the forms of worldview and mankind that precede philosophy. Myth is the most ancient (archaic) view of the world, society and man, which existed among all peoples and has a syncretic character. Elements of the emerging forms of spiritual culture are intricately intertwined in it: philosophy, art, morality, religion, science. The source of the myth is, on the one hand, the powerlessness of man in the face of the phenomena of nature and human life, on the other, his dream of mastering them, the hope of conquering them by will and labor, the conviction of the possibility of creating independent and fast-acting tools of labor, as well as flying vehicles. This optimism permeates the so-called proper etiological myths explaining the origin of cultural elements: fire, crafts, agriculture, rituals, customs, etc.

In mythology, the actual process of the formation and development of the human race, its inherent "essential properties": labor, thinking, communication, freedom, individuality, and so on is captured in a peculiar form. This process is reflected in three main ideas: emergence(start), cyclicality (shifts centuries and generations), end(updates). So, in cosmogonic myths, as well as in the "Theogony" of Hesiod, we are talking about the emergence of a natural way from the chaos of everything that exists, including man, in anthropogonic myths - about the origin in one way or another of the human race or individual peoples (in later cosmogonic and anthropogonic myths that developed in early class society, the idea of ​​the emergence of the world and humanity is supplanted by the idea of ​​creation). The initial stage, or right time, i.e. distant mythical past Is depicted either as a state of miserable existence of people living like ants in caves (the myth of Prometheus), or as a "golden age" ("Works and Days"), when "people lived like gods, not knowing grief, not knowing the works , and a bountiful harvest of themselves gave grain-growing lands "(Hesiod). Natural) 7, assigning way of human existence opposed properly human, producing a way of existence associated with the creation of cultural goods. At the same time, as it developed, difficulties also grow: each subsequent century turned out to be poorer and harder for mankind than the previous one, and the iron age became the worst and hardest of all, when "works and sorrows never stop, not at night" (Hesiod). However, despite the strengthening in human existence of those negative moments that people in the past did not know about, in the future it is still possible to "return" to the golden age that existed in the past.

The primitive consciousness operates with the present, but thanks to two-tier(the presence of concrete and explanatory thinking in it) understands it as the unity of the past and the future. Life

A primitive society, including a more developed one - agricultural was determined by natural and biological cycles (regular repetitions of biocosmic rhythms), reflected in rituals and practice. Accordingly, time, "history" was divided into closed cycles, in which, however, there was an element linearity expressed in the division of time into mythical and empirical, or * historical. The "historical cycle" therefore includes the idea descent, those. movement from the initial state, or the mythical past, to the empirical present, which is often worse than the beginning, but in the long term does not exclude the possibility of a better future. The idea of ​​linearity, the direction of social life is a product of a specific level of primitive thinking (and not mythological) associated with man's mastery of the forces of nature by the growth of his dominance over them. Hence the optimism expressed by | hope for a better future.

If the early, archaic mythology described the life of a human collective, its "history" in terms of cosmogony, and at first historical ideas had no other model, except for the model of the natural cycle, then in later mythology the struggle for space against chaos is transformed into protection of the clan and tribe, into the struggle for the ordering of human life, the assertion of justice, measures, laws in it heroic In myths, the biographical "beginning" is in principle analogous to the cosmic one, but the ordering of chaos is no longer referred to the world as a whole, but to the process of the formation of an individual who turns into a hero who serves his collective and is able to maintain cosmic order. Unlike the gods who create space objects, the hero obtains cultural objects, overcoming various difficult ones associated either with their abduction from the original guardians, or with their own manufacture, carried out like potters to blacksmiths, i.e. demiurges. Usually heroes are endowed with exorbitant strength (superhuman capabilities, but at the same time they are deprived * of immortality. Hence the contradiction between the limited ^ capabilities of the hero as a mortal being and his desire1 | to assert himself in immortality. The active, active nature of man | myth and epic is expressed mainly in the form of a supernatural ability, manifested initially through the struggle of heroes) by monsters, and later - in their competition with the gods and with each other in the skill of wisdom, strength. Moreover, the hero, who embodies the collective principle, fights and performs feats primarily for the sake of preserving the clan and tribe, in the name of affirming goodness and justice, but not realizing personal interest.

In late, developed mythology, along with the image of the initial time, an image appears end time, the death of the world and humanity, subject or not subject to cyclical renewal. Thus, the beginning of human history (not only as an objective process, but also as a process of its realization, comprehension) goes back to ancient times. And although, due to the underdevelopment of labor, feelings and will still prevailed over intellect, the beginning of understanding, understanding the history of mankind is associated with myth as the historically first,

a fantastic form of explanatory thinking.

** *

Myth-consciousness does not distinguish between the natural and the supernatural, often substitutes one for the other and "believes" in both. In "sacred" myths and related rituals, primitive people worship the natural and the supernatural in equal measure. Knowledge and faith are not yet separated from each other and are not recognized as opposites. Thanks to this, primitive man strengthened in himself the belief in the possibility of his own will and labor to conquer natural and social forces beyond his control. A step towards the separation of the sensible from the supersensible, their opposition and erection supernatural in cult made by religion. It is precisely religion that tends to separate the ideal from the real, replace the real reality with the fictional. In primitive beliefs (totemism, animism), the supernatural is not yet perceived as something supersensible (ideal), but appears in the form of things or living beings. The basis of totemic beliefs and rituals is formed by the idea of ​​a supernatural relationship between the human race and the totem, i.e. of this or that object, animal, plant, with which this genus is most closely connected in everyday life and which therefore turns out to be especially vital for it. Worship (including rituals, spells, etc.) to a real-life object endowed with supersensible properties, or, otherwise, fetish, are primarily associated with the desire to influence the course of events in the desired direction, to appease the natural forces beyond the control of man, which cause feelings of fear and depression in him. The supernatural properties attributed to the object later began to be separated from it and turned into independent beings - "spirits": good and evil, benevolent and hostile to man. On this basis, there is anime- belief in the existence of a soul that controls people, animals, and the phenomena of the surrounding world. Initially, the soul was thought bodily (in the form of a chimera, a jellyfish), and then demons appear - the patron saint of crafts, agriculture, cattle breeding. With the transformation of the soul into a special, existing independently of the corporeal and actively acting ideal substance, the possibility is created doubling the world into real and otherworldly and, accordingly, the possibility of separating religion (with belief in the supernatural) from myth. Under the conditions of the decay of a primitive society and the emergence of a class society, clan and tribal beliefs and religions are being replaced by polytheistic religions ("host of gods"). The recognition of the existence of a multitude of individualized gods endowed with personal names is also connected with] monolatry, ie. worship of one, the most powerful of them (such a combination of polytheism with monolatry is characteristic, in particular, for Ancient Greece up to the era of Hellenism).

Fantastic images, which originally reflected the mysterious forces of nature, now become "carriers" also] historical forces. The life of the universe is likened to the life of human society: nature is "inhabited" by gods, the relations between which (the domination of some gods over others, their struggle with each other, etc.) takes on the character of relations that have developed between people in a class society. with magic, which expressed mainly the attitude of a person to , nature, then the culture of class society is more connected with religion, reflecting primarily the relationship between classes. The personification of the greatness of the mysterious forces of nature is replaced by the personification of the greatness of the divine, or royal, power. In Egypt and in Mesopotamia, this power is likened to the power of the despot-pharaoh, who by force asserted his rule and supported it. This is evidenced by the social life of the city-palace with its economic religious order and royal ceremonial, in which everything is permeated with superhuman greatness (even the columns of Egyptian temples are likened to grandiose tree trunks tapering upward, so personifying superhuman greatness). On the contrary, the ancient Greek gods were created in the image and likeness of man, in many ways showing the human way of behavior and thinking and are not devoid of human vices. The ancient Greeks did not identify God and man, but they did not contrast them so sharply. Their gods not only are not alienated from people, are not hostile to them, do not completely predetermine their fate, but even contribute to its active implementation, help to achieve success in a peaceful life and in war. As you know, slave labor in Ancient Greece during the formation of policies did not yet play a significant role, the economic basis of the emerging policies is formed by small peasant farming and independent handicraft production, aimed directly at the realization of human abilities and the prosperity of the policy as a whole, and not at increasing the wealth of individuals ... In his eulogy, the leader of the Athenian demos, Pericles, called it remarkable that in Athens the same individuals are busy with domestic and state affairs, use wealth only as a means for activities that they strive to perform with grace and dexterity, and consider it shameful not poverty, but inability to get out of it through labor. A democratic polis with its inherent cult of labor and its weak division opened the way for the development of individuality and self-awareness. Hence, the twelve Olympian gods are not characterized by a strict hierarchy, not belonging to a single whole; each of them is an integral individual who actively maintains the world and public order and fulfills the responsibilities assigned to it.

With the growth of the influence of religious views in class society, their assertion as "world religions", the idea of ​​public life as an arena of actions of natural and supernatural forces, as well as heroes (who primarily embodied the collective principle and carried out a collective interest) and the gods who patronize them supplanted by the idea of ​​it as about the process of realizing the will of the one and almighty God. This will is embodied by his earthly governors most often through wars, violence, betrayal, or, in other words, through cruelty. As B. Russell justly noted, "religion and cruelty went hand in hand," since "their basis is the same - fear" 9. Thus, in a person, feelings of depression were strengthened, his own powerlessness before the forces of nature and society, the tragedy of his fate as a creature.

Domestic philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and spiritual culture in general. At the same time, it is distinguished by its national identity and, to a certain extent, by its uniqueness. The peculiarity of Russian philosophy is that it represents an element of the dialectical relationship between the individual and the general, which is determined in turn by the specifics of the socio-cultural development of the first forms of Russian statehood and spirituality during the transition from the primitive communal type of society to the feudal one, from paganism to the Christian religion.

Philosophical knowledge in Kievan Rus, during the periods of the Mongol yoke and the centralized Moscow state, was fragmentary, not independent and not systematized. But it existed, developed, formed the basis for the formation of philosophy as a science in the 18th century. Subsequently, it was represented by a variety of directions, orientations and schools, which is due to the genesis of Russian philosophy and changing social conditions. In this context, the main worldview, methodological, epistemological, axiological principles were considered from the standpoint of materialism, both Marxist and non-Marxist (Plekhanov, Herzen, Chernyshevsky), and idealism in secular (Vvedensky, Shpet) and religious (Soloviev, Berdyaev) forms. It should be noted that philosophical ideas were considered not only in the works of philosophers, but also in the works of outstanding representatives of world and domestic science (Lomonosov, Vernadsky, Tsiolkovsky, etc.), as well as artistic culture (Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, etc.)

As in the entire system of world philosophy, in Russian philosophical thought materialism and idealism express the unity of opposites; they do not so much oppose each other as complement and enrich scientific philosophical knowledge.

There are alternative points of view on the formation and development of ancient Russian culture as a whole, especially ancient Russian philosophical thought. It seems that the process of the formation of philosophical thought in Ancient Russia (1X-XIII centuries AD) was of a contradictory nature. Christianity was the main ideological and theoretical factor in the formation of ancient Russian philosophical thought. At the same time, the pagan heritage formed the basis of the world outlook of the broad masses, a kind of "popular philosophy". If we take the culture of ancient Russian society as a whole, then pagan elements played an important role in it even after the adoption of Christianity by Russia in 988.

The first Russian philosopher can be considered Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev (XI century), the author of the famous "Word of Law and Grace." Along with purely theological dogmas, the work contained proper philosophical ideas. These are the historiosophical provisions on the "two-stage linear" world history, based on the idea of ​​changing the state of "Law" to the state of "Grace" along the path of mankind to the metahistorical "eternal life". Hence the conclusion is drawn about the divine equality of the "new peoples", about the inclusion of the history of the Russian people in world history. Typical is Hilarion's solution to the epistemological problems of “knowledge of God,” as well as people's comprehension of the truth. He distinguishes two types of truth, corresponding to the Old Testament of the Bible ("Law") and the New Testament of the Bible ("Grace"), defends the position of theological rationalism. Many other church leaders, monks and princes also contributed to the development of Russian pre-philosophy.

Domestic philosophy was formed and developed over a number of historical eras, from the Middle Ages to the present. A number of stages are distinguished in the history of Russian philosophy:

1. XI-XVII centuries. - the formation of Russian philosophy (pre-philosophy);

2. Philosophy in Russia in the 18th century;

3. Formation of Russian philosophy as a science - the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries;

4. Philosophy of the "Silver Age" in Russia - the second half of the XIX - 20s. XX centuries;

5. Modern Russian philosophy - after 20 years. XX century

It should be noted that after 1917 Russian philosophy had two wings: foreign and domestic development of the philosophy of the Soviet period.

First step. XI-XVII centuries - Old Russian philosophy (philosophy of the pre-Petrine period or Russian medieval philosophy). Its features are: religious-Christian orientation; comprehension of statehood and citizenship, the "symphony of powers" - church and state, as well as fragmentation, lack of independent status. The philosophical understanding of the historical process, the place and role of Russia in the world community is substantiated.

Second phase. XVIII century - is historically connected with the Europeanization of Russia and the reforms of Peter I. The national idea of ​​“Holy Russia” is being transformed into the idea of ​​“Great Russia”. Philosophy is gradually moving away from scholastic forms, becoming freer from the church, thereby beginning the process of secularization and enrichment of its content with scientific knowledge. Philosophy teaching began in the first Russian universities.

The first propagandists of the philosophical ideas of this period in Russia were F. Prokopovich, G. Skovoroda, A. Kantemir and others. Outstanding representatives of philosophical views were M.V. Lomonosov and A.N. Radishchev.

M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) - "the universal mind of Russia." In Russian philosophy he laid the foundations of the materialist tradition and natural philosophy. He understood matter only as a substance, substantiated its structure, attributive properties, laws.

A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802) was the first to proclaim the idea of ​​humanity not in the spirit of religious philosophy, but as the main pivot of secularized, secular social thought. He criticized the social life of monarchist Russia.

Stage three. Late 18th - first half of the 19th century - Independent philosophical creativity in Russia is being established. It manifested itself primarily in the confrontation between the Slavophils and the Westernizers. The appeal to European philosophy became noticeable. One of the directions of Russian philosophy at the beginning of the 19th century. gravitated towards Schelling. Its representatives were D.M. Vellansky, M.G. Pavlov, A.I. Galich. There were supporters of Kant's philosophy, French thinkers. However, the main discussions took place around the main problem of that time. It was associated with defining the ways of development of Russian culture. Early and later Westernism and Slavophilism, the teachings of peasant utopian socialism, populism, anarchism, revolutionary and different-ranked democracy, monarchism offered various options for the development of Russia. Domestic philosophy accumulated rich theoretical content, improved the scientific methodology of research.

Stage four. Second half of the 19th - 20s of the 20th century . The philosophy of this period is predominantly of a religious-Christian nature, and anthropocentrism and humanism become the main directions of development. The stage is characterized by the rapid and creative development of the main directions and types of national spiritual culture. He received the designation "Silver Age". Mature, fundamental philosophical systems emerge. Among the thinkers, N.F. Fedorov, V.S. Soloviev, B.N. Chicherin, N.O. Lossky, N.A. Berdyaev et al. The development of natural science in Russia gave rise to another feature of philosophy - the emergence of Russian cosmism . The principles of philosophical research are affirmed: integrity, conciliarity, real intuition, "truth-righteousness", positive total unity, ethical personalism, nationality, sovereignty and others.

Russian philosophy achieved the greatest successes in the 18th-20th centuries. Its characteristic features and characteristics were: 1) accentuation of anthropological problems; 2) the generally humanistic nature of philosophical concepts; 3) the presence of personal philosophical creativity of thinkers; 4) a combination of general philosophical, ideological, methodological, epistemological problems with axiological problems; 5) strengthening of natural-philosophical research, development of concepts of cosmism.

It should be noted that these features were inherent in the teachings of the majority of representatives of Russian philosophy, which once again emphasizes its integrity, unity in combination with the diversity of manifestation. This position is also typical for the study of more specific problems. It took place in the works of representatives of various directions of Russian philosophical thought: "the problem of the nature and structure of consciousness" (Herzen, Chernyshevsky, Dostoevsky, Soloviev), "the problem of the method of cognition" (Herzen, Lavrov), "problems of society and the state" (Herzen, L. . Tolstoy, Berdyaev), "the problem of culture" (Chernyshevsky, Dostoevsky, Soloviev, Danilevsky, etc.). Many features and directions of development of Russian philosophy have been integrated into humanism and anthropologism.

The philosophy of the "Silver Age" had a pronounced social activism. Theoretical problems were viewed as a means of resolving practical contradictions in the course of the country's social transformations. Therefore, anthropologism and humanism were often the fundamental methodological principles of any philosophical analysis. So, A. Herzen, solving the problem of the determinism of human behavior as a natural being and his free will as a social being, called this contradiction “circle”, and saw the solution not in going beyond this “circle”, but in its secular anthropological and humanistic understanding. N. Chernyshevsky proceeded from the fundamental, holistic nature of man, which is in history and has a set of properties: selfishness, benevolence, hard work, desire for knowledge, etc. These potential properties are realized in a certain social and historical context, which can be both favorable and not favorable to humans. However, the preservation of the eternal humanistic, spiritual "nature" of a person guarantees progress in history. Thus, within the framework of the Russian tradition, secular anthropologism was combined with the activity-oriented humanistic orientation of philosophical theory.

The activity-humanistic orientation also characterized the Russian religious-philosophical anthropologism, resolved, of course, first of all, in the sphere of the spirit. Typical in this respect were the teachings and activities of the “wandering philosopher” and preacher G.S. Frying pans (1722-1794). He was called "the first philosopher in Russia in the exact sense of the word" (V. Zenkovsky). His work had a great influence on the religious and philosophical ideas of the Eastern Slavs. Skovoroda's philosophical and ethical system was based on the interpretation of biblical texts, Christian-neo-Platonist ideas and norms of Christian morality. It included a wide range of issues: good, evil, justice, conscience, moral perfection, reverence for God, humility, holiness, etc.

The integrating principles of this system were the ideas of "affinity" and human happiness. Skovoroda proceeded from the existence of a general law of "affinity" as a kind of guarantor of the balance of nature, including the balance of various parts of being: things, objects and beings - from the lowest forms of life to the forms of the state. A person acquires this "affinity" as a result of intelligent creative activity, personal improvement. It is the universal law of a happy human life. Biblical principles and self-knowledge, which he explained anthropologically, help in the assimilation of the law.

At the same time, considering a person as a philosophical problem, Skovoroda, as it were, set up a kind of philosophical and religious experiment, simulating the type of appropriate behavior. It is embodied in the personal religious and moral experience of G. Skovoroda himself, when his philosophical teaching was organically combined with his personal life.

The active character of Russian religious philosophical anthropologism is also represented in the works of N. Fedorov, Vl. Solovyov and other thinkers. Philosophy was considered by them as “the philosophy of the creative spirit”, the philosophy of values, “sacred things” and love. The interpretation of Vl. Solovyov's famous formula F.M. Dostoevsky's "beauty will save the world." Beauty as a criterion of artistry is included in the fabric of life, real being. There is a certain commonality with the aesthetic ideas of N.G. Chernyshevsky.

Elements of the concept of Vl. Soloviev are interconnected. So the concept of "conciliarity" expresses the unity of the general (social) and the individual (individual). Man himself is perceived as an individual and universal creation at the same time. Such was the person, according to Vl. Solovyov, before he separated himself from the eternal unity of divine life. After the fall of man, a complex process of separating the human principles of life from the universal divine begins.

Within the framework of cosmism, the idea of ​​the universal involvement and cosmic responsibility of man was put forward while preserving his individuality. In Russian philosophy, a stable tendency is presented to overcome extreme anthropologism, which elevates a person above other types of being. This provision has an important methodological significance for the analysis of our society, which is experiencing a spiritual crisis.

28. Ethical and humanistic content of the philosophy of G. Skovoroda.

An important place in the development of Ukrainian ethical thought belongs to the work of the outstanding Ukrainian thinker Grigory Skovoroda(1722 - 1794). He wrote 18 works and translated 7 works from Latin. From it, in fact, the history of Ukrainian philosophy begins, which becomes on a par with the philosophy of the Western European Enlightenment. He inherits the educational traditions of the Kiev - Mohyla Academy, but not literally. While the main attention was focused on the knowledge of nature, G. Skovoroda turns to man. At the center of his teaching are ethical and humanistic problems. The central problem of Skovoroda's ethics is the problem of self-knowledge, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ has a pronounced moral content. The philosopher explains his understanding of spirituality (which is identical to humanism) by the doctrine of two worlds: visible, external and invisible, internal. The invisible present in all things as eternal, unchanging, true. Man is also the unity of the visible and the invisible. Through his invisible nature, man is identical with God: true man and God are one and the same. God is cognized not so much through the assimilation of nature as through the cognition of oneself, an invisible person, through moral self-improvement. Moral improvement of the inner world brings a person closer to freedom - ϶ᴛᴏ one of the principles of the philosophy of the Enlightenment, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ fully appeared in the philosophical system of G. Skovoroda. European philosophical thought ХУІІІ century clearly divided the ancient spiritual heritage from the spirit of Christianity in the sphere of morality (ancient philosophy emerged from the idea of ​​happiness within the human boundaries, and Christian morality was based on the preaching of happiness in the other world). Ancient and Christian traditions are intertwined in the ethics of G. Skovoroda. He kept repeating: if happiness and truth are possible, then not somewhere and once, but here and now. Happiness must be found, which is why the main task is to know oneself. A person's knowledge of himself is the ultimate condition for the happiness of every person and the whole of society. Moreover, for self-knowledge of some knowledge, you need to have a kind heart - high morality.

Reflecting on the spiritual and the bodily, the divine-Mediterranean, the eternal and fast-flowing, G. Skovorodokov proves that the main thing in man is his soul. In order to understand yourself, you need to go deep into yourself, fly with your heart from the earth to the invisible, heavenly - so we can comprehend our heart and soul. The heart, in its assertions, is a sensitive mind, not from a purely rational knowledge. People who have achieved self-knowledge, recognition and love of other people, G. Skovoroda called true people.

Revealing the essence of happiness, he points out that stomach fullness and other bodily pleasures do not eat it. Advances in science also make people happy. Real spiritual satisfaction, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ gives a person a feeling of happiness, is self-knowledge. To be happy, it is extremely important to know, to find yourself.

At first, a person, as if turned by the whole place, outward, reminiscent of the joy of the earthly world. Potomon comprehends knowledge of his own nature, himself, his abilities and develops a way of life corresponding to his nature. G. Skovoroda saw the basis of such a way of life in "kindred work" as a real manifestation of human life activity, a person's self-affirmation.

The philosopher did not consider the consumption of material goods and the enjoyment of them to be the basis of human happiness. The highest bliss and true happiness is given to a person by work according to his vocation, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ reflects the natural inclinations of a person. The reason for all his immoral, disfigured society was considered work without calling, work of the utmost importance, forced or work of radio enrichment. So, condemning the social shortcomings of society, he called for moral improvement, being convinced that happiness is available to everyone, as nature did not neglect anyone. Hence, he came to the conclusion that the ideal is such a society in which everyone can realize their natural goals, embody them in life through education.

Relevant was his thought about the spiritual power of individuals, capable of carrying the truth to other people and confirming it by their own activities. Referring to the image of the Old Testament Moses, G. Skovoroda saw in him a person who, by her will, united the Jewish people and made them happy.

Social problems had a bright moral orientation in the work of G. Skovoroda. He saw the value of human life in activities that were aimed at establishing justice in society, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ would make life a paradise and God's house. In this new, ideal, highly moral world, country and kingdom of love, equality, love and common justice will reign. This state of affairs can be achieved through the self-organization of the people, dismissal from social and spiritual slavery, for which the spiritual unity of the ethnos, faith in one's own strength and will to the goal are important.

The purpose of life of G. Skovoroda was joy and joy of the heart, a rich inner world, the strength of the soul. The attainment of this blissful peace was for him the art of living. Another principle of the ethical - philosophical doctrine of the thinker is the all-penetration of morality, the expansion of the boundaries of the functioning of morality in the whole society. At the same time, for self-knowledge of some knowledge, one must have a good heart - high morality.

Although the ethical views of G. Skovoroda, his thoughts and life itself were far from the essence of life, the ideals that he sowed among the Ukrainian people were pure and convincing. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the ethical orientation of the philosophy of G. Skovoroda continues and develops the national tradition of moral enlightenment and education, which have developed in the practice of fraternal schools and the Kiev - Mohyla Academy.