The emergence of philosophy in ancient india china is brief. Philosophical thought of ancient India and ancient China. What have we learned

Philosophy of Ancient India

Philosophical ideas in Ancient India begin to form around the 2nd millennium BC. NS. Humanity knows no earlier examples. In our time, they have become known thanks to the ancient Indian literary monuments under the general name "Vedas", literally meaning knowledge, knowledge.

“Veda”Are peculiar hymns, prayers, chants, incantations, etc. They were written approximately in the 2nd millennium BC. NS. in Sanskrit. In the Vedas, for the first time, an attempt is made to approach a philosophical interpretation of the environment around man. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around a person, they are nevertheless considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources.

Upanishad

Philosophical works that correspond to our ideas about the nature of posing problems, and the form of presenting the material and their solution, are the Upanishads, which literally means sitting at the teacher's feet and receiving instructions. They appeared approximately in the 9th - 6th centuries. BC NS. and in form they represented, as a rule, a dialogue of a sage with his disciple or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his disciple. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. The religious and mythological interpretation of the environment in the most famous "Upanishads" grows to a certain extent into a differentiated understanding of the phenomena of the world. Thus, ideas appear about the existence of various types of knowledge, in particular, logic, rhetoric, grammar, astronomy, the science of numbers and military science. Ideas are also emerging about philosophy as a kind of field of knowledge. And although the authors of the Upanishads failed to completely get rid of the religious and mythological interpretation of the world, they can be considered the earliest known philosophical works. In the Upanishads, primarily in the above-mentioned works, an attempt is made to formulate and discuss such significant philosophical problems as the elucidation of the fundamental principle of nature and man, the essence of man, his place and role in his environment, cognitive abilities, norms of behavior and role in this is the human psyche. Of course, the interpretation and explanation of all these problems is very contradictory, and sometimes there are judgments that exclude each other. The leading role in explaining the root cause and fundamental principle of the phenomena of the world, that is, the environment, is assigned to the spiritual principle, which is denoted by the concept of "brahman" or "atman". In most of the texts of the Upanishads, “brahman” and “atman” are interpreted as a spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man. A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “You are that”, or “You are one with that”. The Upanishads and the ideas set forth in them do not contain a coherent and coherent concept. With the general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, other judgments and ideas are presented in them, and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural-philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental principle of the phenomenon of the world and the essence of man. So, in some texts, the desire is manifested to show the external and internal world as consisting of four or even five material elements.

Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided in the Upanishads into two levels: lower and higher. At the lowest level, only the surrounding reality can be cognized. This knowledge cannot be true, since in its content it will be fragmentary, incomplete. Knowledge of the truth, that is, the spiritual absolute, is possible only through the highest level of knowledge, which is acquired by a person through mystical intuition, the latter, in turn, is formed largely through yoga exercises. One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of a person, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. In this area, the ancient Indian sages achieved successes unsurpassed in other world centers of philosophy. Paying considerable attention to ethical problems, the authors of the Upanishads actually call for passive-contemplative behavior and attitude towards the world around them, considering the highest bliss for a person to be completely removed from all worldly concerns. They attribute to the highest bliss not sensual pleasures, but a blissful, calm state of mind. By the way, it is in the Upanishads that the problem of transmigration of souls (samsara) and the assessment of past actions (karma) are first posed, which subsequently developed in religious beliefs. Of course, this problem cannot be assessed unambiguously, for example, only from a religious and theological perspective. An attempt is also made here with the help of moral principles (dharma) to correct a person's behavior at every stage of his existence. The role of the Upanishads in the history of all Indian philosophy is extremely great. They, in essence, become the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical currents that appeared in India, since they put or developed ideas that for a long time "nourished" philosophical thought in India. We can say that in the history of India, and, to a certain extent, of some of the closest countries of the Middle and Far East, the Upanishads were the same as for Europe.

A significant contribution to the development of philosophy in ancient India was made by Buddhism... Siddhartha Guatama, or Buddha (c. 583 - 483 BC) is considered the founder of Buddhism. The name Siddhartha means "one who has achieved the goal", Gautama is a generic name. The search for a path leading to overcoming the suffering experienced by people became the main driving force behind the life of Gautama. He abdicates the throne and family and becomes a wandering ascetic. In the beginning, he turned to yogic meditation, which is the realization of the desire to acquire the divine principle of a human person through the discipline of body and mind. But this method of approaching God did not satisfy him. Then he went through the path of strict austerity. Gautama's asceticism was so severe that he was close to death. However, this path did not lead him to his goal. Finally, he sat down under a tree, facing the east, and decided not to leave this place until he received enlightenment. On the night of the full moon, Gautama overcame four stages of meditative trance, as if he was aware of what was happening, and in the last watch of the night he gained enlightenment and became a Buddha, that is, “the Enlightened One”.

Buddha saw the path leading to liberation from all suffering, that is, to "nirvana."

At thirty-five, he gave his first sermon, which is called "The First Turning of the Wheel of Diarma." Buddha called his path the middle one, since he rejected both asceticism and hedonism, which presupposed the pursuit of pleasures as one-sided extremes. In this sermon he proclaimed “ Four Noble Truths”.

Their essence boils down to the following:

all human life is continuous suffering;
the cause of suffering is the desire for pleasure;
to stop suffering is possible only on the paths of giving up attachments and detachment;
leads to the end of suffering "The Noble Eightfold Path", which involves the use of right views, right intention, right speech, right action, right means of life, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.

Buddha, like a doctor who discovers a disease, offers a cure. The four truths proclaimed by the Buddha contain a diagnosis and a recipe for a disease that has afflicted human existence. And although this diagnosis and recipe sounds simple, they contain a deep philosophical discovery.

Three characteristics of being

Its first part is what the Buddha called “Three characteristics of being”. The first characteristic says that all the components of being are transient, all creatures appear in it, undergo changes and disappear. According to the second characteristic, all components are deprived of their permanent “I”. People strive to achieve pleasures and forget that when they achieve them, these pleasures may cease to please, lose attractiveness, and even become undesirable. In other words, their desires as the basis of their “I” are impermanent. The third characteristic of being is that all the components of being are filled with suffering. According to the Buddha, the stream of events in which people are included, due to its variability, can never be a source of true happiness and peace of mind; moreover, it brings endless suffering due to the fact that people are burdened and tormented by the impracticability of their desires, which roll over them like waves of the sea, running one after one to the shore.

The Buddha declared the law of "mutual origin" to be the law of the middle path. Its essence is that any event is due to its cause and is the cause of other events. In Discourse on Causation, Buddha names four characteristics of causation: objectivity, necessity, immutability, and conditionality. This law was revealed to Buddha the night he attained enlightenment. This law became the basis of his entire system of views.

This law provided the Buddha with the opportunity to interpret the law of karma and explain the chain of births. Buddha believed that a human being consists of five components: body, sensation, perception, volition, consciousness. At every moment of time, a person is a combination of the named components. Each subsequent state of a person is due to his previous state. According to Buddha, an essential factor that determines the change in human states is the moral content of human behavior. Immoral actions of a person lead to the fact that the future position of a person becomes less favorable, while good actions can improve the situation. This is the law of Karma. The causal relationship with physical death is not interrupted, it accompanies his consciousness, which passes into another, newly born body. In view of the fact that suffering pursues a person in his different, alternating lives, and nirvana is liberation from rebirth and the suffering accompanying them, then its achievement is, according to Buddha, his highest goal. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to act in accordance with the requirements of the Noble Eightfold Path, remembering that the first two parts of it - right views and right intentions - are the basis of wisdom, the next three - right speech, right behavior and right means of livelihood - are the basis morality and the last three - right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration - lead to concentration. The transition from wisdom to morality and so on to concentration are the stages of the ascent to nirvana. First, a person experiences glimpses of wisdom that propel him to morality and to the sources of concentration. Concentration, in turn, promotes the deepening of wisdom. Growing wisdom strengthens morality and promotes higher levels of concentration. Ultimately, this ascent leads to nirvana.

Buddhist morality presupposes the implementation of five principles in behavior, consisting in abstaining from murder, theft, licentiousness, lies and intoxicating drinks.

The peculiarity of the Buddha's views is that he declared all insights, knowledge and achievements to be the results of human efforts. The Buddha considered questions related to metaphysics, for example, about the eternity or impermanence of the world, insignificant, distracting from the goals of salvation.

The Buddha believed that in addition to such an important goal as the achievement of personal nirvana, a person should have another: the arrangement of the happiness of the entire human society, as well as an even higher goal - to ensure the happiness of all living beings.

Philosophy of Ancient China

One of the earliest literary monuments of Ancient China, which sets out philosophical ideas, is the I Ching ( Book of Changes”). The name of this source has a deep meaning, the essence of which is an attempt to reflect the processes occurring in nature, including its celestial sphere with the natural system of stars. Heavenly nature (the world), together with the Sun and the Moon, in the process of its daily orbits, either rising or falling, creates all the diversity of the constantly changing celestial world. Hence the name of the literary monument - “The Book of Changes”.

Strictly speaking, " Book of Changes”Is not yet a philosophical work, but a kind of literary and poetic laboratory, in which the transition from pre-philosophical and, to some extent, mythological ideas to philosophical thinking proper is carried out, and the collectivist generic consciousness grows into the personal philosophical views of completely wise people. The Book of Changes occupies a special place in the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought. The most prominent philosophers of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and development for centuries to come, are Laozi (second half of the 6th - first half of the 5th centuries BC) and Confucius (Kun Fu-tzu, 551 - 479 BC). NS.). Although other thinkers also worked in ancient China, nevertheless, first of all, the philosophical heritage of Laozi and Confucius gives a fairly objective idea of the philosophical quests of ancient Chinese thinkers. Laozi's ideas are presented in the book "Tao Te Ching", which was prepared for publication by his followers and appeared at the turn of the 4th - 3rd centuries BC. NS.

Taoism

It is difficult to overestimate its importance in the history of ancient Chinese thought. Suffice it to say that Laozi and his writings laid the foundations of Taoism, the first philosophical system of ancient China, which received a long life and has not lost its significance today. Central importance in Taoist teaching belongs to the concept of "Tao", which constantly, and not just once, appears, is born at any point in the Universe. However, the interpretation of its content is ambiguous. On the one hand, "Tao" means the natural path of all things, independent of either God or people, and is an expression of the universal law of movement and change in the world. In accordance with this approach, all phenomena and things, being in a state of development and change, reach a certain level, after which they gradually turn into their opposite. At the same time, development is interpreted in a peculiar way: it does not go along an ascending line, but is carried out in a circle. On the other hand, "Tao" is an eternal, unchanging, unknowable principle that does not have any forms, not perceived by the human senses. "Tao" acts as an immaterial spiritual basis of all things and phenomena of nature, including man. Its realization is made possible by “de”, which denotes forces or virtues that act spontaneously. The best way to realize "Tao" in the outside world is the principle of "wuwei" unintentional activity. Here are some statements about the essence of "Tao" and the forms of its manifestation, contained in the "Tao Te Ching". In essence, we are talking about the understanding of the essence of being by the ancient Chinese thinker. Here is an example of a statement defining the natural origin of “Tao”, and to a certain extent its physicality: “Tao, which can be expressed in words, is not a permanent Tao. A name that can be called is not a permanent name. The nameless is the beginning of heaven and earth. He who has a name is the mother of all things. " And further. “Man follows the earth. The earth follows the sky. Heaven follows Tao, and Tao follows naturalness. " And here is a passage characterizing the incorporealness of "Tao" and the forms of its manifestation. “Tao is incorporeal and devoid of form, and in its application it is inexhaustible. O deepest, it seems to be the forefather of all that exists. If you dull its discernment, free it from its disorderly state, temper its brilliance, equate it with a speck of dust, then it will seem clearly existing. I don’t know whose offspring it is. ” And further. “Tao is incorporeal. Laozi and his followers are convinced of the need for knowledge and note their enormous role in human life. However, their ideal of knowledge, their understanding of knowledge, are distinguished by their originality. This, as a rule, is contemplative knowledge, that is, a statement, fixation of things, phenomena and processes occurring in the world. In particular, this finds its confirmation in the recognition that “since everything that exists changes by itself, we can only contemplate its return (to the root). Although things (in the world) are complex and varied, they all flourish and return to their roots. I call the return to the previous root peace, and the peace I call the return to the essence. Return to essence I call constancy. The knowledge of constancy is called the achievement of clarity, and ignorance of constancy leads to confusion and troubles. " "He who knows constancy becomes perfect." Laozi makes an attempt to structure different levels of knowledge: "He who knows people is wise, who knows himself is enlightened." Further, a peculiar methodology of cognition is proposed, the essence of which boils down to the fact that one can cognize others by oneself; by one family you can know the rest; by one kingdom one can know others; one country can know the Universe. How do I know that the Celestial Empire is like that? Thereby. But what ideas are expressed about the social structure of society and its management. So, characterizing the style of government, and indirectly this implies the form of government, the ancient Chinese thinker considers the best ruler to be the one about which the people only know that he exists. Somewhat worse are those rulers whom the people love and uplift. Even worse are those rulers whom the people fear, and worse than all are those rulers whom the people despise. It is said about the method, the style of government, that when the government is calm, people become simple-minded. When the government is active, people become unhappy. And as a kind of recommendation and advice to the rulers, it is proposed not to crowd the dwellings of people, not to despise their lives. He who does not despise commoners will not be despised by them. Therefore, the perfectly wise, knowing himself, is not imbued with pride. He loves himself, but does not exalt himself.

Confucius

The further formation and development of ancient Chinese is associated with the activities of Confucius, perhaps the most prominent Chinese thinker, whose teachings still have millions of admirers, and not only in China. The formation of Confucius as a thinker was largely facilitated by his acquaintance with ancient Chinese manuscripts: "The Book of Songs" ("Shijing"), "Books of Historical Legends" ("Shujing"). He put them in proper order, edited them and made them available for general information. The great popularity of Confucius for many centuries to come was brought by the informative and numerous comments made by him to the "Book of Changes". Confucius' own views were set forth in the book "Conversations and Judgments" ("Lunyu"), which was published by his disciples and followers based on his sayings and teachings. Confucius is the creator of the original ethical and political doctrine, some of the provisions of which have not lost their significance in our days. The basic concepts of Confucianism that make up the foundation of this teaching are “ren” (philanthropy, humanity) and “li”. “Ren” acts both as the foundation of ethical and political doctrine and as its ultimate goal. The basic principle of "Ren": "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to people." The means of gaining “ren” is the practical embodiment of “li”. The criterion for the applicability and acceptability of “whether” is “and” (duty, justice). "Li" (deference, norms of community, ceremonial, social regulations) includes a wide range of rules governing, in essence, all spheres of public life, starting with the family and including state relations, as well as relations within society - between individuals and various social groups.

Moral principles, social relations, problems of public administration are the main topics in the teachings of Confucius. As for the levels of knowledge, he conducts the following gradation: “Higher knowledge is innate knowledge. Below is the knowledge acquired by teaching. Even lower is the knowledge acquired as a result of overcoming difficulties. The most insignificant is the one who does not wish to draw instructive lessons from difficulties. " So, we can say with good reason that Laozi and Confucius, with their philosophical creativity, laid a solid foundation for the development of Chinese philosophy for many centuries to come.

5. Philosophy of Ancient India and Ancient China (Confucianism and Taoism).

Philosophical Ideas in Ancient India

Philosophical ideas in ancient India begin to form around the 2nd millennium BC. In our time they became known thanks to the ancient Indian literary monuments under the general name "Vedas", literally meaning knowledge, knowledge. " Vedas ”represent a kind of hymns, prayers, chants, incantations, etc. They were written approximately in the second millennium BC. NS. in Sanskrit. In the Vedas, for the first time, an attempt is made to approach a philosophical interpretation of the environment around man. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around a person, nevertheless they are considered as philosophical, and more precisely pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources.

Philosophical works, corresponding to our ideas about the nature of the formulation of problems, and the form of presentation of the material and their solutions, are “ Upanishads ”, which literally means to sit at the teacher's feet and receive instruction. They appeared approximately in the 9th-6th centuries BC and in form represented, as a rule, a dialogue between a sage and his disciple or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his disciple.

In the Upanishads, the leading role in explaining the root cause and fundamental principle of the phenomena of the world, that is, the environment is assigned to the spiritual principle, which is denoted by the concept of “brahman” or “atman”. Noting the existence of an attempt, to a certain extent, of a natural-philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental principle of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man, it should be noted that the leading role by the authors of the Upanishads was still assigned to the spiritual principle - “brahmana” and “atman”. In most of the texts of the Upanishads, “brahman” and “atman” are interpreted as a spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man. This is how it is said in the Upanishads: “19. Brahman appeared first of the gods, the creator of everything, the keeper of the world. "

A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “You are that”, or “You are one with that”.

The "Upanishads" and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a coherent and coherent concept. With the general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, other judgments and ideas are presented in them, and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural-philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental principle of the phenomenon of the world and the essence of man.

Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level, one can only cognize the surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since in its content it is fragmentary, incomplete. Cognition of the truth, that is, the spiritual absolute, is possible only through the highest level of knowledge, which is acquired by a person through mystical intuition, the latter, in turn, is formed largely through yogic exercises.

So, the thinkers of Ancient India note the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and highlight such elements in it, as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm e, etc. Their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized.

Paying considerable attention to ethical problems, the authors of the Upanishads actually call for passive-contemplative behavior and attitude towards the world around them, considering the highest bliss for a person to be completely removed from all worldly concerns. They refer to the highest bliss not sensual pleasures, but a blissful, calm state of mind. By the way, it was in The Upanishads first raise the problem of transmigration of souls (samsara) and the assessment of past actions (karma), which was subsequently developed in religious beliefs.

2... Philosophical Thought in Ancient China

The most prominent philosophers of ancient China, who largely determined its problems and development for centuries to come, are Laozi (second half of the 6th - first half of the 5th century BC) and Confucius (Kun Fu-tzu, 551–479 BC. ).

Lao Tzu and his writings laid the foundations of Taoism, the first philosophical system of ancient China, which received a long life and has not lost its significance today. Laozi's philosophical views are contradictory. One should not be surprised at this, they could not be otherwise. In that era, the process of the formation of Chinese philosophy was going on, and every great thinker, and Laozi was such, could not help reflecting in his teaching the contradictory nature of the world around him.

Central importance in Taoist teaching belongs to the concept of "Tao", which constantly, and not once, appears, is born at any point in the Universe. However, the interpretation of its content is ambiguous. On the one hand, "Tao" means the natural path of all things, independent of either God or people, and is an expression of the universal law of movement and change in the world. In accordance with this approach, all phenomena and things, being in a state of development and change, reach a certain level, after which they gradually turn into their opposite. At the same time, development is interpreted in a peculiar way: it does not go along an ascending line, but is carried out in a circle.

On the other hand, "Tao" is an eternal, unchanging, unknowable principle that does not have any forms, which is imperceptible by the human senses. "Tao" acts as an immaterial spiritual basis of all things and phenomena of nature, including man.

Laozi and his followers are convinced of the need for knowledge and note their enormous role in human life... However, their ideal of knowledge, their understanding of knowledge, are distinguished by their originality. As a rule, this is contemplative knowledge, that is, a statement, fixation of things, phenomena and processes taking place in the world. In particular, this finds its confirmation in the recognition that “Since everything that exists changes by itself, we can only contemplate its return (to the root). Although things (in the world) are complex and varied, they all flourish and return to their roots. I call the return to the previous root peace, and the peace I call the return to the essence. Return to essence I call constancy. Knowledge of constancy is called achieving clarity, and ignorance of constancy leads to confusion and trouble. He who knows constancy becomes perfect.

But what ideas are expressed about the social structure of society and its management... So, characterizing the style of government, and indirectly this presupposes the form of government, the ancient Chinese thinker considers that the best ruler is the one about which the people only know that he exists. Somewhat worse are those rulers whom the people love and uplift. Even worse are those rulers whom the people fear, and worse than all are those rulers whom the people despise. It is said about the method, the style of government, that when the government is calm, people become simple-minded. When the government is active, people become unhappy. And as a kind of recommendation and advice to the rulers, it is proposed not to crowd the dwellings of people, not to despise their lives. He who does not despise commoners will not be despised by them. Therefore, the perfectly wise, knowing himself, is not imbued with pride. He loves himself, but does not exalt himself.

The further formation and development of ancient Chinese philosophy is associated with the activities Confucius... The formation of Confucius as a thinker was largely facilitated by his acquaintance with ancient Chinese manuscripts: “The Book of Songs” (“Shits-zing”), “Books of Historical Legends” (“Shujing”). He put them in proper order, edited them and made them available for general information. The great popularity of Confucius for many centuries to come was brought by the informative and numerous comments made by him to the "Book of Changes".

The basic concepts of Confucianism, which constitute the foundation of this teaching, are “ren” (philanthropy, humanity) and “whether”. “Ren " acts both as the foundation of ethical and political doctrine and as its ultimate goal. The basic principle of "Ren": "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to people." "Lee"(deference, norms of community, ceremonial, social regulations) includes a wide range of rules that regulate, in essence, all spheres of public life, starting with the family and including state relations, as well as relations within society - between individuals and various social groups. Moral principles, social relations, problems of public administration are the main topics in the teachings of Confucius.. Confucius considers moral behavior, for example, of a son, who, during the life of his father, observes his actions with respect, and after death follows the example of his actions and for three years does not change the order established by the parent. When asked how to manage people and how to make commoners obey, Confucius answers: way.

As far as comprehension and knowledge of the surrounding world, Confucius basically repeats the ideas expressed by his predecessors, and in particular, Laozi, in some way even yielding to him. So, the surrounding world, the nature of Confucius, in essence, narrows and limits only the heavenly sphere. An essential element of nature for him is fate, as something inherently predetermining the essence and future of man. So, he says: “What about the sky? The change of the four seasons, the birth of all that exists ”. It is said about fate: “Everything was originally predetermined by fate, and nothing can be added or added here. Poverty and wealth, reward and punishment, happiness and unhappiness have their roots, which the power of human wisdom cannot create ”. Analyzing the nature of human knowledge and the possibilities of cognition, Confucius believes that by nature, people are similar to each other. Only the highest wisdom and extreme stupidity are unchanged. People begin to differ from each other through habits and upbringing. As for the levels of knowledge, he conducts the following gradation: “Higher knowledge is innate knowledge. Below is the knowledge acquired by teaching. Even lower is the knowledge acquired as a result of overcoming difficulties.

The roots of the philosophy of Ancient China go back to the deep past and has more than two and a half millennia. For a long time being isolated from the whole world, she was able to go her own way, and acquire a number of unique features.

Features of ancient Chinese philosophy

During its formation and development, the philosophy of Ancient China, like culture in general, was not influenced by any other spiritual traditions. This is an absolutely independent philosophy, which is fundamentally different from the Western one.

The central theme of ancient Chinese philosophy is the idea of harmony with nature and the general relationship between man and space. According to Chinese philosophers, the basis of all that exists is the trinity of the Universe, which includes heaven, earth and man. In this case, all the energy is permeated with the energy "Qi", which is divided into two principles - female yin and male yang.

The precondition for the development of ancient Chinese philosophy was the dominant religious and mythological worldview. In ancient times, the Chinese were convinced that everything in the world happens by the will of Heaven, the chief ruler of which was Shang-di, the Supreme Emperor. He was subordinate to numerous spirits and gods, similar to birds, animals or fish.

Rice. 1. Chinese mythology.

The characteristic features of the philosophy of Ancient China include:

Ancestor cult. The Chinese believed that the dead have a great influence on the fate of living people. At the same time, their impact was positive, since the tasks of the spirits included sincere concern for the living.
Close interaction of masculine and feminine principles. According to ancient beliefs, at the time of the creation of all living things, the Universe was in a state of chaos. Only after the birth of the two spirits, yin and yang, did the universe become ordered and divided into two unities - heaven and earth. The masculine yang took over the sky, and the feminine yin took the earth.

Rice. 2. Yin and Yang.

Philosophical schools of ancient China

Ancient Chinese philosophy was based on several teachings that had much in common, and differed only in the details of the worldview. The most important and significant in the culture of Ancient China were two areas - Confucianism and Taoism.

TOP-4 articleswho read along with this

Confucianism ... One of the most important areas of the philosophy of Ancient China, which has not lost its relevance to this day. The founder of this school was the great Chinese thinker Confucius, who saw the meaning of life in the manifestation of humanism, nobility, as well as in strict adherence to rituals and rules of behavior. At the center of his teaching was man, his behavior, moral and mental development. Confucianism also affected the administration of the state. The ancient thinker was extremely negative about the imposition of strict laws, believing that they would still be violated. Reasonable government can only be exercised on the basis of personal example.

Confucius's childhood was very difficult. After the loss of the breadwinner, the family lived in dire poverty, and the boy had to work hard to help his mother. However, thanks to a good education, perseverance and hard work, he managed to make a successful career in the public service, and then move on to teaching.

Taoism ... Popular ancient Chinese teaching, founded by the philosopher Lao Tzu. Tao is the path, the universal beginning and the universal end. According to the teachings of Lao Tzu, the universe is a source of harmony, and thanks to this, every living being is beautiful only in its natural state. The basic idea of Taoism is non-action. A person will only find freedom and happiness when he lives in harmony with nature, away from the bustle of the world, renouncing material values and living in simplicity.

Rice. 3. Lao Tzu.

Legism ... The Chinese thinker Xun Tzu is considered the founder of the doctrine. According to his teachings, the management of a person, society and the state is possible only on the basis of total order and control. Only in this way is it possible to suppress his dark beginning in a person and determine the correct existence in society.
Moism ... The school got its name in honor of the teacher Mo-Ji. Moism is based on the idea of love, duty, mutual benefit and equality of all people. Each person should strive not only for his own good: he should in every possible way help his neighbors achieve it.

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When studying the topic "Philosophy of Ancient China", we learned briefly the most important thing about the philosophy of Ancient China. We found out when the origin of ancient Chinese teachings began, what prerequisites were for their development, what are their main features.

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MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND

FOOD OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

MURMANSK STATE

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF CORRESPONDENCE

SOCIO-ECONOMIC EDUCATION

TEST

ON PHILOSOPHY

Topic: "Philosophy of Ancient China and India."

Date of submission of work to the dean's office: ________________

Murmansk

Plan

1. Philosophy of Ancient China ._______________________________________ 3

Confucianism ._______________________________________________________ 3

Taoism ._______________________________________________________________ 5

2. Philosophy of Ancient India ._________________________________________ 7

Hinduism ._______________________________________________________________ 7

Buddhism ._______________________________________________________________ 9

Literature .__________________________________________________________ 11

The history of Chinese civilization dates back to the turn of the III-II millennium BC, the end of its ancient period is considered the collapse of the Han Empire (220 AD). The conditions for the emergence of civilization here turned out to be less favorable than in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Until the second half of the 1st millennium BC, Ancient China developed, in fact, in isolation from other civilizations. In the 8th century BC, there were many states in China. The kingdoms of the middle reaches of the Yellow River and the Great Plain of China were distinguished by the unity of the cultural tradition. Here the ethnocultural and political complex of the middle kingdoms (Zhongguo) was formed and the idea of others as "barbarians of the four countries of the world" arose. The idea of the cultural priority of the zhunguozhep (people of the middle kingdoms) becomes an important component of the self-consciousness of the ancient Chinese.

From the middle of the 1st millennium BC, an era of profound changes in ancient Chinese society began. In the 4th century BC, China began to turn into an administrative-command empire of the eastern type of civilization. The era of Zhangguo became the era of "rivalry of a hundred schools", when the main directions of the philosophical thought of Ancient China took shape, although folk-mythological thinking, worship of the forces of nature, and the poeticization of the rebellion of folk heroes who rebelled for the good of people even against the Heavenly Sovereign continued to dominate at the level of mass consciousness.

Confucianism and Taoism emerged.

Confucianism is an ethical and philosophical doctrine developed by its founder Confucius (551-479 BC), developed into a religious complex in China, Korea, Japan and some other countries.

The state cult of Confucius, with an official ritual of sacrifice established in the country in 59 AD, existed in China until 1928. Confucius borrowed primitive beliefs: the cult of deceased ancestors, the cult of the Earth, and the ancient Chinese veneration of their supreme deity and legendary ancestor - Shang-di. In the Chinese tradition, Confucius acts as the keeper of the wisdom of the "golden age" - antiquity. He strove to return the lost prestige to the monarchs, improve the morals of the people and make them happy. At the same time, he proceeded from the idea that the ancient sages created the institution of the state for the sake of protecting the interests of each individual.

Confucius lived in an era of major social and political upheavals: the power of the Zhou ruler, Wang, was dying, patriarchal-clan norms were violated, the very institution of the state was destroyed. Speaking out against the reigning chaos, the philosopher put forward the idea of social harmony, based on the authority of sages and rulers of ancient times, reverence for whom became a constantly acting impulse of the spiritual and social life of China.

Confucius expounded the ideal of a perfect person (tszyun tzu), considering personality as valuable in itself. He created a program for the improvement of man: with the aim of achieving a spiritually developed personality of harmony with the Cosmos. A noble husband is the source of the ideal of morality for the whole society. He alone has a sense of harmony and an organic gift to live in a natural rhythm. It reveals the unity of the inner workings of the heart and outer behavior. The sage acts in a natural way, since from birth he is attached to the rules of observing the "golden mean". Its purpose is to transform society according to the laws of harmony that reigns in the Cosmos, to order and protect its living. For Confucius, five "consistencies" are important: ritual, humanity, duty - justice, knowledge and trust. In the ritual, he sees a means that acts as a "foundation and utopia" between Heaven and Earth, allowing each person, society, and state to fit into the endless hierarchy of a living cosmic community. At the same time, Confucius transferred the rules of family ethics to the sphere of the state. The hierarchy was based on the principle of knowledge, perfection, the degree of familiarization with culture. The sense of proportion, embedded in the inner essence of the ritual through external ceremonies and rituals, conveyed the values of harmonious communication at an accessible level to everyone, attaching them to virtues.

As a politician, Confucius realized the value of ritual in governing the country. Everyone's involvement in the observance of the measure ensured the preservation of moral values in society, preventing, in particular, the development of consumerism and damage to spirituality. The stability of the Chinese society and state, which nourished the vitality of Chinese culture, owed much to ritual.

Taoism arose in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. According to legend, the secrets of this doctrine were discovered by the ancient legendary Yellow Emperor (Huang Di). In fact, the origins of Taoism come from shamanistic beliefs and teachings of magicians, and its views are set out in the "Canon of the path and virtue" ("Daodejing"), attributed to the legendary sage Lao Tzu, and in the treatise "Chuan Tzu", reflecting the views of the philosopher Chuang Zhou (IV-III centuries BC) and Huainan-tzu (II century BC).

The social ideals of Taoism were a return to the "natural", primitive state and intra-community equality. Taoists condemned social oppression, condemned wars, opposed the wealth and luxury of the nobility, scourged the cruelty of the rulers. The founder of Taoism Lao Tzu put forward the theory of "non-action", calling on the masses to passivity, to follow the "Tao" - the natural course of things.

The philosophical constructions of ancient Taoism became the foundation of the religious teachings of the Taoists in the Middle Ages as part of the syncretic complex of the "three teachings", along with Confucianism and Buddhism. Prominent representatives of medieval Taoist thought were Ge Hong (IV century), Wang Xuanlan (VII century), Li Quan (VIII century), Tien Qiao (Tan Jingsheng) (X century), Zhang Boduan (XI century). The Confucian intellectual elite showed interest in the philosophy of Taoism, the ancient cult of simplicity and naturalness was especially attractive: in merging with nature, freedom of creativity was gained. Attention to Taoism increased especially after the fall of the Han dynasty, when Confucianism, as an official religion, exhausted its possibilities. Taoism took on some features of the philosophy and cult of Buddhism in the process of adapting the latter to the Chinese soil: Buddhist concepts and philosophical concepts were transformed into Taoist terms familiar to the Chinese. Taoism influenced the development of neo-Confucianism.

One of the most distinctive cultures of the Ancient East was Indian. The religion of Hinduism played an important role in the spiritual life of India. Monuments of that period - "Vedas" - contain a lot of material on mythology, religion and ritual. Vedic hymns are considered sacred texts and have been passed down orally from generation to generation. One of the characteristic features of the Vedic religion was polytheism - the worship of many deities. Syncretism in the description of the gods is characteristic of Vedism; there was no supreme deity.

The Indian of that time deified the forces of nature, animated plants, mountains, rivers. Later, the idea of the transmigration of souls took shape. In the Vedic hymns, the search for a solution to the mysteries of the universe is traced, the idea of the mortality of even the gods is expressed. Many features of Vedism entered Hinduism, where the creator god is brought to the fore, a strict hierarchy is established in the pantheon of gods.

Hinduism is a religious system closely related to the history and specific social structure of the peoples of South Asia. There are more than 700 million followers of Hinduism in the world and they live almost exclusively in the countries of South Asia, primarily in India (about 83% of the population). The majority are Hindus in the Kingdom of Nepal.

The conditions for the formation and development of Hinduism determined the originality of its philosophical system. Bright, juicy, rich and diverse, designed for all levels of individual consciousness, this religious system is distinguished by its pluralism.

Polytheism characteristic of Hinduism (not limited to the worship of the main triad - Shiva, Brahma, Vishnu) made it possible to choose both the object of the cult itself and the form of its worship, depending on the specific purpose of addressing the deity, each of which was assigned certain functions, and also depending on the direction in Hinduism, which the Indian adhered to, whether it be Shaivism, Vishnuism, or their many varieties.

In the sphere of philosophy, Hinduism has developed the problem of the relationship between the general and the particular, the finite and the infinite, the unity of the Cosmos, the Absolute, the relativity of truth. The breadth of Hinduism manifested itself in the development of spatio-temporal characteristics that have a unit of cosmic time "day of Brahma", equal to 4320 minutes of astronomical years. Hence the idea of the transience and immediacy of the present, which determined quietism, contemplation and contemplation of philosophical systems based on Hinduism.

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Karma (in Sanskrit - deed, action, fruit of action), one of the central concepts of Indian philosophy, complementing the doctrine of reincarnation. Appears already in the Vedas and later enters into almost all Indus. religious and philosophical systems, is an essential part of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. In a broad sense, K. is the total amount of actions committed by every living being and their consequences, which determine the nature of his new birth, that is, his further existence. In a narrow sense, K is generally called the influence of committed actions on the nature of present and subsequent existence. In both cases, K. appears as an invisible force, and only the general principle of its action is assumed to be clear, while its internal mechanism remains completely hidden. K. determines not only favorable or unfavorable conditions of existence (health - illness, wealth - poverty, happiness - unhappiness, as well as gender, life span, social status of an individual, etc.), but ultimately - progress or regression in relation to the main goal of a person - liberation from the fetters of "profane" existence and obedience to the laws of cause-and-effect relationships. Unlike the concept of fate or fate, essential for the concept of K. is its ethical coloration, since the conditionality of present and future existence has the character of retribution or retribution for committed actions (and not the impact of inevitable divine or cosmic forces).

NIRVANA (Skt., Lit. - cooling, fading, fading), one of the center. concepts of ind. religion and philosophy. Got special development in Buddhism, where it means the highest state in general, the ultimate goal of man. aspirations, speaking, on the one hand, as an ethical and practical ideal, on the other as a center. rollers concept. Philosophy. Buddhist texts do not provide a definition of N., replacing it with numerous. descriptions and epithets, in krykh N. is depicted as the opposite of everything that can be, and therefore as incomprehensible and inexpressible. N., speaking primarily as an ethic. ideal, appears as a psychological. state of completeness int. being in the face of external being, absolute detachment from it. This state means negatively the absence of desires, positively a kind of unbreakable fusion of intellect and feelings. the will, which appears from the intellectual side as a true understanding, from the moral-emotional - as morals. perfection, with strong-willed - as absolute disconnection, and in general can be characterized as internal. harmony, consistency of all available abilities, making the external optional. activity. At the same time, this does not mean the assertion of "I", but, on the contrary, - the disclosure of its real non-existence, since harmony presupposes the absence of conflict with the environment, the establishment of shunya (in particular, the absence of opposition between the subject and the object). N. is a definition. departure from ordinary people. values (good, good), from the goal in general and the establishment of their values: with int. sides - this is a feeling of peace (bliss - as opposed to happiness as a sensation of movement), from the outside - the state of abs. independence, freedom, which in Buddhism means not overcoming the world, but its removal. Since the very opposition of "life" and "death" is removed, disputes about whether N. is eternal life or destruction are devoid of meaning.

Sansamra or samsamra ("transition, a series of rebirths, life") - the cycle of birth and death in the worlds limited by karma, one of the basic concepts in Indian philosophy: a soul drowning in the "ocean of samsara" strives for liberation (moksha) and deliverance from the results of their past actions (karma), which are part of the "network of samsara". Samsara is one of the central concepts in the Indian religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Each of these religious traditions gives its own interpretation of the concept of samsara. In most traditions and schools of thought, samsara is viewed as an unfavorable position to get out of. For example, in the philosophical school of Advaita Vedanta in Hinduism, as well as in some areas of Buddhism, samsara is viewed as the result of ignorance in understanding one's true Self, ignorance, under the influence of which the individual, or soul, takes the temporary and illusory world for reality. At the same time, Buddhism does not recognize the existence of an eternal soul and the temporary essence of an individual passes through the cycle of samsara.

Confuciamism (Chinese trad. China, Korea, Japan and some other countries.Confucianism is a worldview, social ethics, political ideology, scientific tradition, way of life, sometimes viewed as a philosophy, sometimes as a religion. "School of scholars", "school of scholars of scholars" or "school of educated people"); "Confucianism" is a Western term that has no equivalent in Chinese Confucianism emerged as an ethical-socio-political doctrine during the Chunqiu period (722 BC). AD - 481 BC) a time of deep social and political upheaval in China During the Han Dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology, Confucian norms and values became generally accepted.

In imperial China, Confucianism played the role of the main religion, the principle of organizing the state and society for over two thousand years in an almost unchanged form, up to the beginning of the 20th century, when the doctrine was replaced by the "three people's principles" of the Republic of China.

Already after the proclamation of the PRC, in the era of Mao Zedong, Confucianism was condemned as a doctrine standing on the path to progress. Researchers note that despite official persecution, Confucianism was actually present in theoretical positions and in decision-making practice throughout both the Maoist era and the transitional period and time of reforms led by Deng Xiaoping.

Leading Confucian philosophers remained in the PRC and were forced to “repent of their delusions” and officially recognize themselves as Marxists, although in fact they wrote about the same thing that they were doing before the revolution. Only in the late 1970s, the cult of Confucius began to revive and now Confucianism plays an important role in the spiritual life of China.

The central problems considered by Confucianism are questions about the ordering of relations between rulers and subjects, the moral qualities that a ruler and a subordinate should possess, etc.

Formally, Confucianism has never had the institution of the church, but in terms of its importance, the degree of penetration into the soul and education of the people's consciousness, the impact on the formation of a stereotype of behavior, it successfully fulfilled the role of religion.

hinduism buddhism confucianism samsara

PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA AND ANCIENT CHINA: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Similarities: 1) the struggle between two tendencies - conservative and progressive; 2) the motive of the threat from the north - nomadic peoples; 3) attempts to formulate a natural law; 4) equivalence of objects: gods, nature, people; 5) numerical symbols; 6) cyclical movement of time; 7) poetry and music - means of gaining spiritual wisdom; 8) condemnation of all forms of religious fanaticism; 9) the age of philosophy is more than 2.5 thousand years.

Differences: 1) in ancient China there was no pronounced caste division of society; 2) the absence in China of a rich mythological basis, similar to India; 3) the appeal of Chinese philosophy to practical life, the present; ancient Indian philosophy is aimed at revealing the spiritual world of man; 4) the hieroglyphic character of Chinese writing - the "plasticity" of ideas; 5) the cult of ancestors in China is more developed than in India; 6) in China, on the basis of the stability of philosophical thinking, an idea of superiority in relation to other philosophical views was formed.

Features of Indian philosophy: 1) interest both in man and in the integrity of the world; 2) "Atman is Brahman" (Atman is the all-pervading spiritual principle, I, the soul. Brahman is the impersonal spiritual absolute from which everything else comes. Atman and Brahman coincide. The whole world is animated by the same spirit, by the same God The coincidence of the I-Atman with the impersonal Brahman opens the way for man to the highest bliss. For this, man must overcome the illusion of the earthly. Achievement of the eternal I - moksha; 3) the idea of absolute existence is created by reducing all things to a single whole. Absolute being can be grasped by intuition (immersion in universal consciousness, conjugation with everything that exists, as a result, a person coincides with God, with absolute being); 4) mysticism; 5) concentration is one of the necessary virtues of a person; 6) the practice of meditation (concentrated reflection) leads to a state of nirvana, to getting rid of earthly desires and attachments. Yogis have developed a special set of techniques and exercises to achieve the state of nirvana.

Hindus have always treated their philosophers with respect (one of the first presidents of independent India was the philosopher S. Radhakrishnan).

Vedanta is the philosophical basis of Hinduism, an influential system of ancient Indian philosophy. Features: 1) Belief in the authority of the Vedas; 2) The elitism of the brahmanas; 3) The idea of transmigration of souls. Directions: Advaita - Vedanta. Founder - Shankara (8-9 centuries); Vishishta is advaita. Founder - Ramanunja (11-12 centuries). Both directions affirm the identity of I and God; Dvaita is Vedanta. Founder - Madhva (12-13 centuries). Recognize differences: God and soul, God and matter, soul and matter, parts of the soul, parts of matter. Features of Chinese philosophy. To the main philosophical movements of the ancient

China include: 1) Confucianism (V? -V century BC), ethical - political doctrine. Principles: 1. reciprocity, 2. philanthropy (the cult of ancestors, reverence for parents), 3. Restraint and caution in actions, 4. the idea of "soft" power: condemnation of extremism; 2) Taoism (founder of Lao Tzu). Source - treatises "Daodejing". The principles of "Tao" (path, universal world law; the beginning of the world) and "Te" (grace from above). The main ideas: a) everything is interconnected, b) matter is one, c) four principles: water, earth, air, fire, d) the circulation of matter through contradiction, e) the laws of nature are objective; 3) legism (? V - ??? century BC).

The main interest is the relationship between society and man, the ruler and his subordinates. Ethics takes the first place in reflections. Close attention is paid to the unity of the world. The concepts of tian (sky) and tao (the law of changing things) are introduced. Tien is an impersonal, conscious, higher power. Tao is the law of changing things caused by this force. The state of general prosperity requires submission to Tao, adherence to its universal rules, submission to the rhythms of nature. A person must get rid of personal aspirations, feel the Tao. Observing Tao means, according to Confucius, being a perfect husband, who is characterized by five virtues: ren - humanity, zhi - wisdom, intellect; and - adherence to the ethics of justice, duty, honesty. This is especially true of relationships in the family and in the service; whether - obedience, delicacy, courtesy, poise; xiao - obedience to the will of the parents. Confucius saw the implementation of his program in a skillfully organized process of education and upbringing of young people. He has had a great influence on Chinese history.

The ancient Eastern concept of non-being (nothing) in its ontological relation to being in a number of essential points resembles the modern scientific concept of vacuum as a substantial-genetic basis of the astronomical universe. According to Hoyle's model, the rate of expansion of the Universe depends solely on the rate of occurrence of physical forms of matter, only under this condition can the condition of invariability of the average density of matter in the Universe be satisfied with its simultaneous expansion. The creator of the next version of the idea of the spontaneous emergence of matter was P. Dirac, who believed that correlations between large dimensionless numbers are of fundamental cosmological significance. In his interpretation, the additive and multiplicative generation of matter entails various types of models of the Universe. In order to eliminate the contradiction with the general theory of relativity, Dirac introduced negative mass in such an amount that the density of all self-generating matter is equal to zero. The newest version of the idea of the spontaneous emergence of physical forms of matter arose within the framework of the theory of the swelling Universe, the creator of which is A.G. Gus. This model assumes that evolution began with a hot big bang. As it expanded, the universe passed into a specific state called a false vacuum. Unlike the true physical vacuum, which is the state with the lowest energy density, the energy density of the false vacuum can be very high. Thus, the stage of inflation ends with a phase transition assumed in the theory of the Grand Unification - the release of the energy density of a false vacuum, which takes the form of a process of generating a huge number of elementary particles.

One of the central problems of cosmology is the problem of the finiteness-infinity of the Universe in space and time. In the light of cosmological studies, it turns out that, contrary to traditional philosophical concepts, all-encompassing does not necessarily have to be considered the main feature of the concept of infinity as such. Mutual transitions of the Universe from one physical-geometric state, characterized by spatial finiteness, to another, characterized by spatial infinity, are possible. In contrast to the idea of cosmic pluralism in a narrow sense, which postulates the existence of countless separate worlds in the Universe, the idea of cosmic pluralism in a broad sense speaks of countless separate universes that arise spontaneously from a vacuum, evolve, and then merge again with the vacuum. Therefore, the unity of the world and its qualitative infinity, inexhaustibility are two dialectically related sides of the material world. This dialectical contradiction underlies the description of the real physical world by means of particular physical theories.

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