The meaning of the word “coefficient. The use of words in a figurative sense. The ambiguity of words and metaphoricity

Modern economic dictionary. 1999

COEFFICIENT

1) indicator, factor, parameter representing the ratio of two homogeneously calculated values, most often in monetary terms;

2) numerical factor in functional dependence.

Reference Commercial Dictionary (1926)

Coefficient

any constant value by which another - a variable - is multiplied for its definite modification.

Dictionary of economic terms

Coefficient

1) indicator, factor, parameter representing the ratio of two homogeneously calculated values, most often in monetary terms;

2) numerical factor in functional dependence.

Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary

Coefficient

Syn: component, component, term, multiplier, factor, ratio, proportion, ratio, degree, percentage, indicator, index, parameter, characteristic

encyclopedic Dictionary

Coefficient

1. (from Latin co - jointly and efficiens - producing), a multiplier usually expressed in numbers. If the product contains one or more variable (or unknown) quantities, then the coefficient of them is also called the product of all constants, including those expressed in letters. Many coefficients in physical laws have special names, for example. coefficient of friction, coefficient of light absorption.
2. in statistics - an indicator expressed in relative values. Reflects: the rate of development of a phenomenon (the so-called dynamics coefficient), the frequency of occurrence of the phenomenon (for example, the birth rate), the relationship of qualitatively different phenomena (for example, the population density coefficient), the degree of use of material, labor or monetary resources ( e.g. coefficient of efficiency), variation in the values ​​of the trait (e.g. coefficient of rhythm).

Ozhegov Dictionary

COEFFICIENCY E NT [en], a, m.

1.

2. A relative value that determines the property of a kakogon. process or device. K. friction. K. useful action (the ratio of the amount of useful work of the mechanism, the system to the amount of energy absorbed by it; spec.). Correction to. (set when correcting some. values; spec.).

| adj. coefficient, oh, oh.

Efremova's Dictionary

Coefficient

1. m.
   1. :
      1. A numeric or alphabetic factor in an algebraic expression.
      2. The number by which to multiply some l. value to obtain the required value under the given conditions.
   2. A quantity that defines some. property of the physical body.

Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Coefficient

acetyl, iodic, acidity, soaping - see Fatty Oils, and partly also Essential Oils.

(physical quantity) - the so-called numbers that quantitatively determine physical phenomena. For example, the thermal conductivity of a substance is called the amount of heat passing per unit of time (minute, hour) through a unit of surface (1 sq. Cm, 1 sq. M) of a wall having a unit (1 cm, 1 m) of thickness, with a temperature difference both sides at 1 ° C. The amount of heat generally passing through the unit of wall surface is proportional to the temperature difference ( t , t ") both sides of the wall, inversely proportional to the thickness of the wall; denoting this amount of heat through W, and the wall thickness through h, we have W = k (t -t " )/h, where k is a factor that converts proportionality into equality and therefore is called the K. of proportionality. Quantity of heat W will be = v in the particular case when t -t " = 1, h= 1; in this case v = k. it k and will be the thermal conductivity K. within the meaning of the definition made above. For walls of the same thickness, but made of different materials, the thermal conductivity will be numerically different, so that k numerically determines the property of this or that material in relation to thermal conductivity. Similarly, K. diffusion (see) numerically determines the property of a liquid to pass into another liquid or into the same, but different concentration. K. hairiness, K. elasticity, K. expansion of bodies from heat, K. absorption of light by one medium or another, K. internal friction (cm), etc. - all are numerical determinants of properties or phenomena of a physical, chemical and mechanical nature. For this reason, precise determination of K. by experiments and measurements is a matter of great scientific and then practical importance. Without knowledge K. it is impossible to establish precisely the laws (see) of phenomena.

For the most convenient and easiest use of K., the scientific literature contains collections consisting of a number of tables. Of the most complete such collections, we point to "Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen von H. Landolt und R. Börnstein" (1894).

F. P.

Coefficient (in algebra) - a constant number that shows how many times a certain letter or an entire algebraic expression must be taken as a summand; so 3 a = a + a + a ; 2(NS + at )= (x + y )+ (x + y ). Here the numbers 3 and 2 are K., showing that the letter a must be folded three times, and the expression x + y- twice. K. can be integers, positive and negative, fractional, irrational, and in general any quantity; in these cases, K. matters only a constant factor. - Term differential K. is sometimes used instead of the word derivative (see Differential calculus).

V. V. V.

The coefficient of efficiency (in mechanics) is called the correct fraction by which the work received by the machine from the engine should be multiplied in order to obtain the amount of useful work produced by the machine, since the first of these works is partly to overcome the useless resistances of the machine itself.

N. D.

Safety factor (building) - the number by which the actual strength (temporary or ultimate resistance) of the material is divided to obtain the allowable, safe stress of the material when used in buildings or in the construction of machines. To. This fluctuates within certain limits, depending on the more or less homogeneity of the composition of the material, the constancy of its qualities and durability, and also depending on the value and nature of the structure. K. safety is thus adopted: to obtain lasting resistance metals- from 3 to 6, for wood from 6 to 12, for stones from 15 to 30. For more important materials and structures, K. safety is established by administrative orders of the government department, which is subject to supervision of the production of buildings and works.

K. resilience - when calculating the dimensions of walls, supports and vaults, in general of such parts of structures that may be subject to the danger of overturning, - the number for which a force sufficient for overturning lasts in order to obtain the value of the actually allowed safe overturning force. Having given this number and knowing the type and magnitude of the forces acting on the structure, they determine its dimensions. Tolerance of stability is usually taken from 1.5 to 2.5, and for supports of railway bridges without embankments - up to 3.

A. T.

Russian dictionaries

As a manuscript

Afanasyeva Evdokia Nikolaevna PORTABLE MEANING OF THE WORD IN YAKUT LANGUAGE

dissertation for a scientific degree

candidate of philological sciences

Yakutsk - 1996

The work was carried out in the Department of Linguistics of the Institute for Humanitarian Research of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

Scientific adviser - Doctor of Philology,

Professor P.A. Sleptsov

Official opponents - Doctor of Philology,

Professor N.K. Antonov

Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor K.I. Fedorova

Leading organization - Research Institute of National Schools of the Ministry

The defense will take place on July 41, 1996 at 12 o'clock at a meeting of the Dissertation Council D 003.69.01 on the defense of dissertations for the degree of Doctor of Philology at the Institute of Humanitarian Research of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Address: 670007, Yakutsk-7, st. Petrovsky, 1, IGI AN RS (Y).

The dissertation can be found in the library of the YSC SB RAS ■

Scientific secretary of the dissertation

council, candidate of philological sciences L N.N. Efremov

general description of work

Relevance of the topic. Figurative meaning as a special type of lexical meaning of a word is one of the problematic issues of lexicology, lexical semantics and lexicography. Due to the lack of theoretical elaboration, as well as the ambiguity of the problem itself in a pragmatic sense, the definition of the figurative meaning of the word is still one of the controversial issues. owls lexicology.

In the linguistic literature, two different approaches to the identification of the figurative meaning of a word are reflected. Historical semantics illuminates it from the point of view of genesis, presenting it as a dynamic process that contributes to the change, development of the meanings of the word. In the synchronic aspect, the figurative meaning acts as an element of the system. Being portable in origin, it is distinguished by a pragmatic orientation.

The need for a scientific development of the issue is caused by the lack of special research in this direction in Yakut linguistics. The choice of the topic of this dissertation work is due to the desire to help in the process of preparation and editing of the large multivolume academic Explanatory Dictionary of the Yakut language created by the team of authors.

The object of this research is the figurative meaning of the word. It is viewed by us in a synchronic aspect.

The purpose of the study is to define the concept of a figurative meaning of a word in the Yakut language.

In this regard, the following tasks are solved in the work:

Determination of the place of figurative meaning in the semantic structure of a word, its relationship ■ with other types of meanings;

Establishment of criteria for identifying a portable meaning;

Description of system connections of the figurative meaning of the word;

Allocation of "types of figurative values;

Identification of linguistic and extralinguistic factors in the formation of figurative meanings.

The theoretical basis of the research was the works on general linguistics, lexicology, semasiology, lexicography of V.V. Vinogradov, A.I. Smirnitsky, R.A. Budagov, L.V. Shcherba, G. Paul, Z. T. Cherkasova, D. Shmeleva, V. G. Gaka, A. A. Ufimtseva, T. M. Arutyunova, V. N. Telia, G. N. Sklyarevskaya, V. K. Kharchenko, Zh. M. Guzeeva, A. A. Yuldashev, M. Mirtadzhiev, B. I. Tatarintsev P. S. Afanasyev and others.

Material for the research was extracted from the following lexicographic sources: "Dictionary of the Yakut language" by ON Bötlingka, "Dictionary of the Yakut language" by E.K. Pekarsky, "Russian-Yakut dictionary" edited by PS Afanasyev and LN Kharitonov, "Yakut-Russian dictionary" edited by PA Sleptsov, "Brief dictionary of the Yakut language" by GF Sivtsev. "A Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the Yakut Language" by N. A. Allakhsky, XX Lukovtsev, "A Phraseological Dictionary of the Yakut Language" by N. S. Grigoriev, "A Brief Explanatory Dictionary of the Yakut Language Edited by P.S. Afanasyev, a manuscript of the" Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Yakut Literary Language (letters A, B, D, I, K, L).

The material of the academic card index of the department of linguistics of the Institute of Humanitarian Research of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) was also used. The compiled card index covers 2010 words, including 1645 with figurative meanings.

Research methods. The specifics of working on the material required the use of definitional, synchronic-descriptive, component, distributive, substitutional. comparative, complex methods of analysis.

The scientific novelty of the dissertation lies in the fact that the work is the first attempt at a special study of the problem of the figurative meaning of a word in the Yakut language. Identification criteria are highlighted and on this basis a definition of the concept of a figurative meaning of a word is given. A classification of figurative meanings is proposed, systemic relations, linguistic and extralinguistic factors of their occurrence in the language are considered.

The practical value of the work is that it can be used in the lexicographic description of the meaning of a word. Some of the provisions put forward in the course of the work can find application in the practice of teaching the Yakut language, in the development of teaching aids and methodological recommendations on the Yakut language.

Approbation of work. The main provisions and results of the dissertation are presented in reports at republican and city scientific conferences: the scientific conference "Kharitonov readings" dedicated to the memory of L.N. Kharitonov (Yakutsk 1991), the republican scientific-practical conference "Yakutia and Russia: history and prospects of the commonwealth of peoples "(Yakutsk 1992), scientific-practical conference of young scientists and graduate students (Yakutsk 1994), conference of scientific youth" Erel-95 "(Yakutsk 1995). The materials of the work were reported at the lexicological seminar of the department of linguistics of the YaILI RAS (1994).

Work structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of abbreviations, and a bibliography.

The introduction substantiates the choice of the object of research, defines the purpose and tasks of the work, reveals the relevance and novelty of the dissertation topic, indicates the practical significance, determines the sources of material, methods of analysis. ..

This work is based on the understanding of the lexical meaning of the word as the historically formed content of the word, which is a unit of the lexical-semantic system of the language. The structure of the lexical meaning consists of denotative-significative content and -connotative environment.

Analysis of theoretical literature shows that there are two approaches to understanding the figurative meaning of a word: broad and narrow.

Proponents of the first point of view believe that in a polysemantic word, all meanings "are figurative in relation to the primary

mu (main) / Mirtadzhiev, 1989; Antonov, 1967 /.

Narrow understanding presupposes Approach to the study of figurative meaning from the point of view of expressiveness and imagery / Yuldashev, 1972; Guzeev. 1985; Kharchenko, 1989 /.

The roots of the distinction between these approaches are associated with the difference in the aspects of studying the lexical meaning of a word. The logical-semantic aspect is characterized by a broad understanding of the subject - the study of the semantic development of the word, the lexical meaning of the word in the diachronic aspect. Lexicographic practice considers the meaning of a word in synchronicity and seeks to describe it in statics. Synchrony and diachrony do not exclude, but complement each other.

In this work, we adhere to the views of those researchers who approach the study of figurative meaning from the point of view of expressiveness and imagery.

The first chapter "Semantic connections and types of lexic meanings of a word" sets itself the task of determining the place of a figurative meaning among the meanings of a polysemantic word, its correlation with other types of meanings.

In a word with derivational links, all meanings go back to the main (primary) directly or indirectly - they are derivatives. By the nature of the schematic arrangement of values, topological types of polysemy differ: parallel connection (all values ​​come from the main one), serial connection (values ​​are formed according to the chain principle), mixed type (values ​​come from both the main and derivatives).

The meanings of a polysemantic word are combined into a semantic unity due to certain relationships that exist between them. Semantic connections between meanings are provided on the basis of a common feature and stable associations. It can be similarity of traits (metaphorical connection), contiguity (metonymic connection), genus-specific relations (expansion, narrowing), opposition (enantiosemia).

Metaphors found in the semantic structure of a word are nominative and figurative. The nominative metaphor is re-

a source of derivative-nominative meanings of the word: tumus noun. "beak, muzzle", "pointed front part of smth. (boat, shoes)", imperial verb. "iron (palm, fingers)", "massage." Figurative metaphors contribute to the formation of figurative meanings: tebin zlag return.-suffering, from tep "to rest on feet", trans.

Metonymic connectedness of meanings is based on the spatio-temporal, cause-and-effect relationships of objects, on the relationship between the part and the whole: ytys noun. "palm", "handful", noun. "giblets", "food from giblets", muus noun "ice", "ice floe".

The narrowing of the meaning is noted when the derived meaning denotes a narrower, specialized range of concepts than the original meaning: oton noun "berry", "lingonberry", seien noun "story", lit. "story", keme noun. "help", "social security benefit".

When expanding the meaning in the derived meaning, a larger volume of concepts is denoted than in the original, for example: odus verb. "hit, beat", "cut down, build", "forge, forge".

In the semantic structure of a word, sometimes there are meanings that contradict each other (enantiosemia): naadalaah adj. "needed", "needy".

The following types of word meanings are distinguished: basic (primary) meaning, derivative-nominative meaning, figurative meaning.

Figurative meanings are one of the types of lexical meanings of a word and are opposed to direct derivative-nominal meanings by the way of nomination and by function. ■ In the word as noun. "food, food", "fruit of plants", trans. "benefit, benefit" the second and third values ​​are derived, based on the metaphorical transference of the main meaning. The metaphor in the second derivative-nominative meaning is aimed at identifying the denotation, is a terminological designation. In the third figurative meaning there is a figurative-associative connection with the main meaning "food."

food "-" benefit, benefit "..

The second chapter "Figurative meaning of a word in the Yakut language" is devoted to theoretical and practical coverage of the main research issue.

Linguistic figurative meanings were chosen as the object for detailed study. , -

Linguistic figurative meanings are subdivided into identifying and characterizing ones. The criterion for their differentiation is the functional parameter. .Identifying values ​​are intended

for naming, characterizing - for expression.

For "highlighting, figurative meaning in the work, it is proposed ... a set of criteria: 1) rethinking based on semantic duality, 2). Preservation inner form initial meaning, 3) characterizing function, 4) possession of connotative attributes. 5) reproducibility.

The following definition follows from the above ■: a figurative meaning of a word is a meaning that is formed as a result of rethinking the direct meaning of a word while maintaining its internal form, carries a figurative subtext and has connotative features.

The work considers the figurative meanings of nouns, verbs, adjectives. The indicators of the activity of parts of speech in the formation of figurative meanings coincide in all normative dictionaries and make up 45% for verbs, 35% for nouns, and 20% for adjectives. The increased activity of verbs and nouns is explained by the predominance of words with specific meanings in these parts of speech. The low activity of adjectives is caused by the vagueness of their semantic boundaries.

Based on the material, two types of figurative meanings are distinguished according to the method of education: metaphor, metonymy.

Metaphor as a model of meaning formation, meaning transformation can lead to different results: to term formation.

the formation of derivative-nominative, figurative meanings and tropes.

According to the representation of the denotation image, the metaphor is subdivided into personification, hyperbole, irony, litota; metonymy - on si-nigdokh and symbol. By function, the metaphor is divided into comparative, pictorial, conceptual; metonymy - into pictorial and conceptual.

Unambiguous words also have figurative meanings, for example: kiyiittee verb. re-scheduling "to be shy, to be shy". The motivation of the meaning of the word is ensured by the preservation of the internal form of the noun in it: kiyyit noun "daughter-in-law; daughter-in-law". Shyness and timidity characterize the behavior of the bride and daughter-in-law. The primary meaning of the verb kiyiittee "to be shy, to be timid (about the bride)" has been lost in modern language. The verb originated from syntactic derivation.

When the forms of the verb change, there are also shifts in figurative meanings, for example: ieh eyes, "bend, bend, bend", trans. "to direct, to transfer the conversation, thoughts in another direction", trans. "to speak in plain terms", trans. "use, possess masterly, skillfully, skillfully (about the word)"; idis verb joint-mutual pledge form from eh peren. "to fight, to compete, to argue with someone stubbornly, on an equal footing."

The emergence of figurative meanings in the language is motivated by the similarity and connections of objects.

The emergence of figurative meanings occurs in three ways: 1) comparison (analogy), 2) reading stereotyped symbolic meanings, 3) expression of emotional Attitude.

There are two types of associative links between direct and figurative meanings: parallel and sequential.

Parallel association is a subjective interpretation of a process, phenomenon, physical attributes of an object on the basis of a conditional comparison. The referent, as it were, finds an analogy in one other area. On the basis of a parallel associative connection, there are figurative values ​​based on comparison, analogy. Beh n. "garbage, garbage" - transfer. "small things, belongings".

Consistent association is based on imagination.

presentation of the subsequent result of an action, process and its peculiar perception, refracted through the prism of the collective experience of native speakers and shows the subjective interpretation of the result, the intended consequence, cause-and-effect relationship: kyah! "fetters, a sling (for the legs of cattle)" - re-rec. "force that deprives freedom", tarbaa eyes. "scratch, scratch" - cross. "annoy someone, annoy someone."

With the appearance of figurative meanings, an important role is assigned to the method of interpretation, which depends not so much on objective conditions as on subjective ones. Subjective, the conditions for the emergence of some secondary meanings are based on stereotyped ideas about an object or phenomenon. In figurative meanings, there is a reading of the descriptive meanings of objects attributed to them by tradition. Stereotypical figurative meanings are dictated by the nature of the objects themselves, are their symbolic content, for example: erges noun. "the edge of a weapon (palms, spears)" - militancy, suluyun noun. "poison. poison" - the worst manifestation of smth., tynykh noun "claws, nails" - bonded force.

The interpretation of meaning through the prism of emotional relations causes the appearance of stylistically colored figurative meanings. For example, the words ardah "den", orgul "heap, heap of rubbish", "termite mound" in a figurative sense mean "a place of shelter" (esteeh aroa ^ a.

Systemic relations of figurative meanings are expressed in their unification into semantic groups, the definition of synonyms, antonyms.

The most voluminous semantic groups of words with figurative meanings are highlighted: nouns denoting somatisms - 28 words, beliefs - 12 words, geographical features of the area - 10 words, carpentry, joinery - 10 words, wildlife - 16 words; verbs denoting the habits of animals - 13 words, physical impact on an object - 14 words, a change in the state of an object for the worse - And words, movement in space - 10 words; adjectives denoting human qualities - 12

words, object consistency - 10 words, color - 8 words.

Three main directions of transfer are revealed: concrete-abstract (inir ssh. "Tendon", trans. "Strength, power"), transfer from one sphere to another (tuereknee eye. "Stagger, swing", trans. "Hesitate, not dare" ), transfer within one sphere (boron adj. "indiscriminate (in food)", trans. "unpretentious").

Figurative meanings can enter into synonymous and antonymic relations with each other. Synonyms: manie ssh. "bait", transl. "deceit, trick" - stupid noun "lasso", trans. "deceit, cunning". Antonyms: woyun eye. "Decrease in volume, decrease, subside", trans. "Lose interest, cool down" - tulun verb. "Rise, rise, push", trans. "be inspired, be inspired".

Figures are one of the synonymous means of the language.

A comparative analysis of three normative dictionaries of the Yakut language is carried out on the basis of 96 words with figurative meanings taken from the "Brief Dictionary of the Yakut Language" by GF Sivtsev. For comparison, the "Yakutsk-Russian Dictionary" edited by PA Sleptsov, "Short Explanatory Dictionary" edited by PS Afanasyev were used. According to the results of the analysis, the figurative meanings of 17 words coincide in all three dictionaries. The figurative meaning of 21 words coincides in two dictionaries, in the third - the meaning is not labeled or transmitted as a homonym, or as a compound word or is absent. The figurative meanings of 15 words are highlighted in only one dictionary.

Analysis of the reasons for the discrepancy in the qualification of the figurative meaning showed that the following inconsistencies are allowed in dictionaries:

Qualification of direct meanings as figurative: byar YARS noun. "liver, liver // hepatic", trans. "protruding part, protrusion of smth."; then / tor byarygar "on a hillock, on a hot spot";

Values-terms are marked "portable": uunuu YARS noun. "harvest", transl. "growth, growth, increase" uunuu sillara "years of development";

There are cases of allocation of figurative meanings on the basis of non-distinction of homonyms: abalaakh YARS app. "overgrown with hemlock, milestone", trans. "annoying; outrageous"; 9ye abalaah badayy! "annoying story!" In the Yakut language, the noun aba, from which it originated, is outdated;

When borrowing, some misunderstandings arise, for example: baltaidaa YARS zlag.rase, "chatting, talking nonsense"; transfer colloquial swing, chat (the plane in flight). In this case, completely different meanings were combined in one word due to the coincidence of forms when borrowing from the Russian language. In the dictionary of the Russian language, these meanings are given as homonyms: chatter (Oh) "interfere, set something in motion (liquid)" ...; "about the movement of the aircraft during turbulence"; chatter (Ozh) colloquial "talk (a lot, quickly, and also about something insignificant or something that should not be discussed)";

Occasionalisms are taken for conventional ones: mvkuuk KTS app. "unbroken (horse, horse)", trans. "changeable, changeable,": ";

The meanings of phraseological units, sayings are accepted as figurative, for example: doruoptaa YARS verb. "shoot with a shotgun"; transfer "scold, threaten (after everything has happened)". The second meaning is essentially the meaning of the phraseological unit kennitten doruoptaa "waving fists after a fight" and is practically not used without a combination with kennitten "from behind". Phraseological derivatives acquire separate meanings when they appear in the language as independent units;

The transition of any concrete meaning to the abstract is noted in some dictionaries as a figurative, for example: tum YARS verb. knot smth..; tie a knot on smth. "; transfer" gather, concentrate "; transfer" summarize smth. " . to sum up smth. ";

Figurative meanings qualify as direct: ilgiin KTS eye "tremble as if shaking something off of itself"; "to speak passionately, to flare up". The second meaning retains its figurativeness, since there is a visual-figurative connection with the primary

value.

Chapter three "Linguistic and extralinguistic factors of the formation of figurative meanings of the word" reveals the methods of formation and extra-linguistic origins of the emergence of figurative meanings.

We distinguish three types of educational methods: stylistic, lexical, syntactic.

The main ways of forming the figurative meaning of the word - metaphorization, metonymization - are accompanied by various connotations, stylistic factors that contribute to the formation of figurative meanings such as irony, hyperbole, litota, symbol, style play.

Metaphorization is the interaction of two subjects. The motive for choosing the subjects of the metaphor is determined by the pragmatic interest of the speaker. Buur noun "a male deer or elk over the age of five", trans. "the best of people" (usually in the form of izafet). Betses Bebe Tustubut, Buurdut Buura Buurdaabpp. (Elley) "The best fighters fought, the best jumpers competed." Two subjects are involved in the metaphorical transfer - a male sloth (or elk) and a man. The characterization of a male deer (elk) as strong, the best of the herd, when projected onto a person, synthesizes a meaning about the best physical data of a person.

Metonymic transfers, such as synecdoche (part and whole), symbol, also contribute to the emergence of figurative meanings of the characterizing plan: boruok ssh. "door threshold", re. "entrance to l." ; tannajyn eye, eozer. from tannar "to turn upside down", transfer. "to decline, to degrade".

Connotation contributes significantly to the emergence of figurative meanings. In this work, connotation is understood as a pragmatic coloration in the meaning of the word, expressing an emotionally evaluative and stylistically marked attitude to reality / Telia, 1986 /.

The lexical methods for the formation of figurative meanings include a change in subject correlation, a change in compatibility, a concise comparison, a truncation of phraseological units and compound

words, borrowing.

The main condition for the appearance of figurative meanings is the transfer of meaning to a different semantic plane. At the same time, the word changes the subject correlation, but retains its meaning. A feature (property, action) characteristic of one subject is transferred to the concept of another category, for example: TV verb. "detach, detach (from the rope, detach)", transfer. "to be freed, to get rid of (from debts, exploitation); amsay eye."

When changing the compatibility, the values ​​do not always remain adequate. Depending on the properties of the signified (referent), refraction occurs in the content of the signifier. The meaning turns out to be in semantic dependence on the referent (see table).

The word is straight! Figurative meaning combined with words meaning! ki1sh! sanaa! rear! harah! sureh

! "man"! "thought"! "language, speech"! "eyes" ¡"heart"

"heavy*

"cold"

difficult, difficult

heavy. ! oskobitel-! cold. ! overwhelming, offensive! indifferent! Lying! ! ny!

"hard¡ cold," cruel. ! "! indifference-! cold-

Nyy¡blood

Comparison can turn into a metaphor and, conversely, a metaphor can turn into a comparison. Chuura sure $ in ktsm ere kvstubet tarbakhtarynan byTgdaa kchmaakhtylsryn Kurduk sytyytyk yaryshalaan ylla. (L. Popov). "Chura's heart ached sharply, as if someone's invisible fingers were pinching him painfully." Kulgaa ^ sh eminnyedin shdayy bygyta kymaakhtyyr. (N. Yakutskai). "The frost stings my earlobes."

The emergence of figurative meanings is also facilitated by the truncation of compound words and phraseological units, when their meaning is compressed into one derivative component. KetvBulun ts verb "to be lifted up", trans. "to be inspired, to be inspired". Portable value

The motivation is motivated by the knowledge of the compound words surgete kete ^ ullubut "to cheer up", sanaata ketedullubut "to be inspired". The figurative meaning of the verb o ^ unuohtaa "to smear something with oil", transl. times d. "to treat someone for selfish purposes; to give a bribe" is determined by the meaning of the phraseological unit tumsun odunuokhtaa "to smear on the lips", "to treat someone for root purposes" / Nelunov, 1981, 118 /.

Figurative meanings of words borrowed from the Russian language are divided into three groups: 1) full borrowings-kiliep noun. "bread", trans. "work that provides livelihoods: 2) partial borrowing - butsuurdaa eye," to tow ", transl. colloquial speech of the Russian language take in tow kozo-n. "help someone. in doing something. "/ Ozhegov, 1983 /; 3) supplemented borrowings ^ kuormala zlaz." to steer a boat, steer a stern oar ", re. by the course of some... deeds. "This word acquired a figurative meaning after mastering it in the vocabulary of the Yakut language.

The emergence of figurative meanings in borrowed words is facilitated by the use of the original language (Russian) in colloquial speech, tracing of meaning, transformation of meanings based on associations of the borrowing language (Yakut).

Syntactic ways of forming figurative meanings are expressed in syntactic derivation, lexicalization of grammatical forms, and izafet construction.

Syntactic derivation - transformation of syntactic fug.;, Tion. The noun kuojur kart. "trump // trump, trump" there is no figurative meaning. It is noted in the derivative of the verb kuohurdaa kart, "to trump, to go with the trump", trans. "To trump, to brag about something." bilitinen kuoPurduur "(he) trumps his knowledge."

Lexicalization of grammatical forms of words contributes to the emergence of figurative meanings, causes shifts in meanings. The verb uktee "to step, to step on someone", trans. "To oppress, to

to press "in the form of an incentive uktet" to force to step, to step on something. "implements the figurative meaning" to deceive, to be deceived, to lead into deception. "

The figurative meaning of some words is realized as part of the izafet. Shirei noun "face", trans. "smb. essence". Kolchak by-laaPyn dyikneeh sireyin beyevit kerEugutp. (V. Protodyakonov). "We saw the true face of Kolchak's power for ourselves."

The specificity of figurative values ​​is the increased cumulative value. Their content reflects the history, material and spiritual culture of the people.

A number of spheres have been identified that served as sources for the emergence of figurative meanings.

Traditional way. Everyday life, activities are reflected in the meanings of words, for example: kulugu noun. "axis of rotation of smth.", trans. "main person", haakhty eye. "burn", transl. "fail, fail"; kuyuurdaa evil. "to fish with sakom", trans. "to lure out of smb. by various tricks"

Nature. Climate, relief, flora, fauna are becoming constant sources of the emergence of new meanings.

Temperature sensations that manifest themselves in a particular weather correspond to a person's mood swings, for example:

Phenomena of nature Kyryar Dybarsy Kyydaannan Kyyidy

freeze grow stronger intensify intensify! (about frost) (about cold (about frost) I! wind) |

Emotions of a person become angry get angry

indifferent harsh

The properties of plants are applicable to the characteristics of a person: khar-saakh adjective "twisted" (may "tree"), trans. "Stubborn, intractable" (kish "man").

Local features become the basis for education

figurative values. Unattractive, difficult-to-pass places are associated with a hard life, for example: kuta noun. "quagmire", trans. "precarious position".

The elevation of the relief has an associative connection with the lofty aspirations of people: dabaan noun "a segment of the path rising to the top; climbing to the top", trans. "Achieving success on their own."

Light phenomena in nature, such as light, darkness, create secondary meanings in the language, being indicators of a person's perception of the positive and "negative sides of life: sabar ^ a noun" morning and evening dawn ", trans." Beginning, signs of a bright, new time "sana uye sanartsata" beginning, signs of a bright, new time ";" haraka adj. "dark", transfer. "terrible, criminal" haraka sanaa "criminal thoughts".

Psychological associations. Language is the embodiment of thinking, as well as psychological associations, which are manifested in the following types:

Anthropomorphism dulay adj. "deaf", trans. "without any gaps, not letting through anything, solid, closed" (tuun "night", chuumpu "silence"), trans. "insensitive" (surekh "heart", duuPa "soul").

Zoomorphism kbmullae verb. "gnaw" (ukuovu "bone"), trans. "cause prolonged, aching pain" (yaryy "disease").

Observation of changes in the properties, qualities of various objects, substances: emekhsy verb. "rot, rot" - (about wood), trans. "decay, grow old" (about a person); keeyun verb. "to ferment; to come into fermentation", trans. "get excited, wind up".

Assessment stereotypes. Opinions, judgments about the qualities, merits of objects, people form a set of ideas based both on life experience and on emotional perception: kien ad. "Wide, spacious", trans. "Calm, wise" (sanaa "thought", her " mind"); turuoru adj. "standing; abrupt", trans. "direct, frank" (kiPi "man", bylaaryy "solution"); kendoy adj. "hollow", transl. "useless, meaningless" (olokh "life", oroskuot "expenses"); khatyylaakh pri-

manhole "prickly, rough", teren. "sarcastic, angry" (harakh "eyes", rear "word").

Figurative perception of the world. The images that have developed in the mind are fixed in the language, reflecting the different stages of the development of the people, their ideas about the world around them. For example, bya noun. "rope", transl. "cause, reason for smth.: predominantly bad. "The idea of ​​life as a thread existed among many peoples during the days of paganism.

Mythology. Favorite or fearsome characters, memorable moments from myths found their analogies in everyday life, for example: aiyyyt noun-myth. "the general name of the goddesses who patronize the increase in offspring", trans. "beautiful kind woman"; adyaray noun myth "abasy, evil spirit", trans. "bad, unreliable person".

Beliefs. Traces of animistic representations have been preserved in the language. Phenomena of nature seemed to be independent animate beings, endowed with human qualities: kennyuer is evil. "To be in a good, elated mood" (kish "man"), trans. "To improve, get better" (aish ^ a "nature", kun (kun-8yya) "weather").

The cult of fire. Fire for the inhabitants of the taiga has always been one of the most important living conditions. As evidence of special reverence, admiration in the Yakut language, words are imprinted to designate even the most insignificant manifestations of fire. In figurative meanings of 14 verbs, the power of fire is commensurate with the feelings, emotions of a person. The intensity of feelings (hope, love, enmity) is expressed by the verbs sah "to kindle the fire", kylamnaa "flicker, flicker". know how to “burn”, kerdugennee “burn under the soil for a long time, slowly”, sezuree is weaker, “fade away”, umulun “go out.” Phenomena such as laughter, fun, enmity, dispute are characterized by the verbs sirelii “to flare up strongly”, kuertee “fan the fire” (smith. with fur), kuedut “fan the fire”, kuedui “light up, flare up.” The intensity of speech is conveyed by the verbs kuluburee “to burn strongly”, kuudepchilen “to ignite”, kytya-lan “to burn brightly, to flare up”.

The magic power of the word. According to ancient beliefs, the word had "the power of influence on objects of the external world. Speech was understood as a means of influencing the world... Therefore, the use of certain words was taboo, and certain actions were also prohibited. This is how euphemistic meanings appeared, for example: kistee verb. "hide, hide, cover", ee ^. "bury".

The language reflects the times of shamanism, Christianity, for example: emeget noun old "idol", re-inconsistent "a person who has become an object of admiration, special reverence"; aannal noun old "angel", transl. "kind, gentle" (about a woman).

The conclusion summarizes the most significant findings for the main sections of the dissertation.

The provisions of the dissertation are reflected in the following publications:

1. Basics of metaphorization in the Russian and Yakut languages ​​// Abstracts of the republican scientific-practical conference "Yakutia and Russia: history and prospects of the commonwealth of peoples". -Yakutsk, 1992 .-- S. 78-79.

2. Methods for the formation of the figurative meaning of the word in the Yakut language // Abstracts of the scientific-practical conference of young scientists and graduate students. - Yakutsk, 1994. - S. 52.

3. Structural and semantic characteristics of figurative meanings of words in the Yakut language // Abstracts of the conference of scientific youth Erel-95. - Yakutsk, 1995. - S. 128.

4. Sources of formation of the figurative meaning of the word in the Yakut language // Collection of scientific works of graduate students of the Yakutsk scientific center of the SB RAS. - Yakutsk, 1995, - S. 42-50.

5. Reflection of the figurative meaning of the word in the "Concise explanatory:.: Dictionary of the Yakut language" // Collection of works of young scientists and specialists "Science, culture, economics", - Yakutsk, 1996. -P. 30-32.

ABBREVIATIONS

YARS - Yakutsk-Russian Dictionary / Edited by P.A. Sleptsov. ■ - M.: Sov. encyclopedia .. 1972. -604 p.

KTS - Concise explanatory dictionary of the Yakut language. - Yakutsk: Bichik. 1994. "- 261 p.

TS - Explanatory dictionary of the modern Yakut literary language / manuscript /. - Archive of YSC SB RAS, fund 5.

Ozh - Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language. - M.: Rus. lang., 1983. -815 "p.

Words are stylistically unequal. Some are perceived as bookish (intelligence, ratification, excessive, investment, conversion, prevail), others as colloquial (real, blurt out, a little); some give the speech solemnity (predestined, expression of will), others sound at ease (work, talk, old, cold). “All the variety of meanings, functions and semantic nuances of a word is concentrated and united in its stylistic characteristics,” wrote Acad. V.V. Vinogradov. When the stylistic characteristics of the word are taken into account, firstly, its belonging to one of the functional styles or the lack of functional and stylistic fixation, and secondly, the emotional coloring of the word, its expressive capabilities.

The functional style is a historically developed and socially conscious system of speech means used in a particular area of ​​human communication. “Functional style,” emphasizes M.N. Kozhin, - this is the peculiar nature of tai speech or its other social variety, corresponding to a certain sphere of social activity and the form of consciousness that is related to it, created by features functioning in this sphere of linguistic means and a specific speech organization, which creates a certain general stylistic coloring ”.

In modern Russian, book styles are distinguished: scientific, journalistic, official-business. They are stylistically opposed to colloquial speech, which usually appears in its characteristic oral form.

A special place, in our opinion, in the system of styles is occupied by the language of fiction, or artistic (artistic and fictional) style. The language of fiction, or rather fiction speech, does not represent a system of linguistic phenomena, on the contrary, it is devoid of any stylistic isolation, it is distinguished by a variety of individual author's means.

1.7.1. Functional-style layering of vocabulary

The stylistic characteristic of a word is determined by how it is perceived by the speakers: as assigned to a certain functional style or as appropriate in any style, common. The stylistic fixation of the word is facilitated by its thematic relevance. We feel the connection of words-terms with the scientific language (quantum theory, assonance, attributive); we refer to the journalistic style as words related to political topics (world, congress, summit, international, law and order, personnel policy); we single out as official business words used in office work (the following, proper, victim, residence, notify, prescribe, forwarded).

In the most general terms, the functional-style layering of vocabulary can be depicted as follows:

Book and colloquial words are most clearly opposed (compare: to invade - to get in, to meddle; to get rid - to get rid of, to get rid of; criminal - gangster).

As part of the book vocabulary, one can distinguish words characteristic of book speech as a whole (subsequent, confidential, equivalent, prestige, erudition, pre-send), and words assigned to specific functional styles (for example, syntax, phoneme, litota, emission, denomination tend to be scientific. style; election campaign, image, populism, investment - to journalistic; action, consumer, employer, prescribed, the above, client, prohibited - to official business).

The functional fixation of vocabulary is most definitely revealed in speech. Book words are not suitable for casual conversation (The first leaves appeared on green spaces), scientific terms cannot be used in a conversation with a child (It is very likely that dad will come into visual contact with Uncle Petya during the coming day), colloquial and colloquial words are inappropriate in the official -business style (On the night of September 30, the racketeers ran into Petrov and took his son hostage, demanding a ransom of 10 thousand dollars).

The ability to use a word in any style of speech indicates its general use. So, the word house is appropriate in different styles: House No. 7 on Lomonosov Street is to be demolished; The house was built according to the project of a talented Russian architect and is one of the most valuable monuments of national architecture; Pavlov's house in Volgograd became a symbol of the courage of our soldiers who selflessly fought against the Nazis on the slots of the city; Tili-bom, tili-bom, the cat's house is on fire (March). In functional styles, special vocabulary is used against the background of common vocabulary.

1.7.2. Emotionally expressive coloring of words

Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the speaker's attitude towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, whitish, lily. These adjectives are emotionally charged: the positive assessment they contain distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral word white. The emotional coloring of a word can also express a negative assessment of the called concept (blond). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative (emotionally evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment is their very lexical meaning (and the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not belong to emotional vocabulary (bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).

A feature of the emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is "superimposed" on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it, the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker's attitude to the named phenomenon.

In the composition of emotional vocabulary, the following three types can be distinguished. 1. Words with a vivid evaluative meaning, as a rule, are unambiguous; "The assessment in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings." These include the words “characteristics” (forerunner, herald, grouch, idle talker, toady, sloven, etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action (purpose, predestination, dealings, eyewash, wondrous, miraculous , irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, defile). 2. Polysemous words, usually neutral in their basic meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, they say about a person: a hat, a rag, a mattress, an oak, an elephant, a bear, a snake, an eagle, a crow; in a figurative sense, the verbs are used: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink and under. 3. Words with the suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feeling: concluding positive emotions - son, sun, granny, neatly, close by, and negative - beard, fellow, bureaucratic, etc. Since the emotional coloring of these words is created by affixes, the estimated values ​​in such cases are due not to the nominative properties of the word, but to word formation.

The depiction of feelings in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness (from Latin expressio - expression) means expressiveness, expressive - containing special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good, we say beautiful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; one might say I don’t like, but one can find stronger words: I hate, despise, disgust. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often, one neutral word has several expressive synonyms, differing in the degree of emotional stress (compare: unhappiness - grief - disaster - disaster, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - violent - furious). Vivid expression emphasizes words solemn (unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations, proclaim), poetic (azure, invisible, chant, incessant). A special expression distinguishes words playful (faithful, newly minted), ironic (grace, grace, don Juan) vaunted), familiar (not bad, cute, knock around, whisper). Expressive shades distinguish between words disapproving (pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), dismissive (painting, petty-mindedness), contemptuous (to scoff, groveling, toadying), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar (grabbing, happy ).

Expressive coloration in a word is layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and some words are dominated by expression, others - emotional coloration. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that "unfortunately, there is no typology of expressiveness yet." This is associated with difficulties in developing a unified terminology.

By combining words that are similar in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include high-pitched, affectionate, partly humorous words; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotional-expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:

The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. Such words as fascism, separatism, corruption, hired killer, mafia have received a sharply negative assessment in our country. Behind the words progressive, law and order, statehood, glasnost, etc. a positive color is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can differ noticeably in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of the word can be solemn (Wait, prince. Finally, I hear the speech not of a boy, but of a husband. - P.), in another - the same word gets an ironic connotation (G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the reputation of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor. - P.).

The development of emotional and expressive shades in a word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as paths get vivid expression: to burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (in unfavorable conditions), flaming (gaze), blue (dream), flying (gait), etc. etc. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mocking and ironic connotation; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuous. The appearance of a word, depending on the context, of additional expressive shades significantly expands visual possibilities vocabulary

The expressive coloring of words in works of fiction differs from the expression of the same words in non-descriptive speech. In an artistic context, vocabulary receives additional, secondary semantic shades that enrich its expressive color. Modern science attaches great importance to the expansion of the semantic volume of words in artistic speech, connecting with this the appearance of a new expressive coloring in words.

The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary draws us to the allocation of various types of speech, depending on the nature of the speaker's impact on the listeners, the situation of their communication, attitude to each other and a number of other factors. Gvozdev, - that the speaker wants to laugh or touch, cause the listeners' disposition or their negative attitude to the subject of speech, so that it becomes clear how different linguistic means will be selected, mainly creating different expressive colors. " With this approach to the selection of linguistic means, several types of speech can be outlined: solemn (rhetorical), official (cold), intimate affectionate, playful. They are opposed by neutral speech, using linguistic means devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of types of speech, dating back to the "poetics" of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists either.

The study of functional styles does not exclude the possibility of using various emotional and expressive means in them at the discretion of the author of the work. In such cases, "the methods of selection of speech means ... are not universal, they are of a private nature." For example, a publicistic speech can receive a solemn coloring; “Rhetorical, expressively rich and impressive can be this or that performance in the sphere of everyday communication (jubilee speeches, ceremonial speeches associated with the act of a particular ritual, etc.)”.

At the same time, it should be noted that there is insufficient study of expressive types of speech, the lack of clarity in their classification. Due to this known difficulties also causes the definition of the ratio of functional-style emotional-expressive coloring of vocabulary. Let's dwell on this issue.

Emotionally expressive coloring of the word, layering on the functional, complements its stylistic characteristics. Words that are neutral in an emotionally expressive relation usually refer to common vocabulary (although this is not necessary: ​​terms, for example, in an emotionally expressive relation, as a rule, are neutral, but have a clear functional fixation). Emotionally expressive words are distributed between book, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary.

The book vocabulary includes high words that give a speech solemnity, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both a positive and a negative assessment of the named concepts. In book styles, the vocabulary is ironic (good-heartedness, words, quixotism), disapproving (pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous (disguise, corrupt).

Colloquial vocabulary includes words that are affectionate (little daughter, darling), playful (butuz, laugh), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts (small fry, zealous, giggle, boast).

Commonly used words that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them there may be words containing a positive assessment of the called concept (hard worker, brainy, funky), and words expressing the speaker's negative attitude to the concepts they designate (crazy, flimsy, dumb).

Functional, emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades can intersect in the word. For example, the words satellite, epigone, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time, the word satellite, used in a figurative sense, we associate with the journalistic style, in the word epigone we note a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis - a positive one. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign language origin. Such affectionate and ironic words as sweetheart, motanya, zaletka, drolya combine colloquial and dialectal coloring, folk-poetic sound. The richness of the stylistic nuances of the Russian vocabulary requires an especially attentive attitude to the word.

1.7.3. Use of stylistically colored vocabulary in speech

The tasks of practical stylistics include the study of the use of vocabulary of various functional styles in speech - both as one of the style-forming elements, and as a foreign-style means, which stands out for its expression against the background of other linguistic means.

The use of terminological vocabulary, which has the most definite functional and stylistic significance, deserves special attention. Terms are words or phrases that name special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent a capacious and at the same time succinct description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of science operates with certain terms that make up the terminological system of this branch of knowledge.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several "layers" can be distinguished, differing in the sphere of use, the content of the concept, and the characteristics of the designated object. In the most general terms, this division is reflected in the delimitation of general scientific terms (they constitute the general conceptual fund of science as a whole, it is not by chance that the words denoting them are the most frequent in scientific speech) and special ones, which are assigned to certain areas of knowledge. The use of this vocabulary is the most important advantage of the scientific style; terms, according to Sh. Balli, "are those ideal types of linguistic expression to which scientific language inevitably strives."

Terminological vocabulary contains more information than any other, therefore the use of terms in a scientific style is a necessary condition for brevity, conciseness, and accuracy of presentation.

The use of terms in works of scientific style is seriously investigated by modern linguistic science. It has been established that the degree of terminology of scientific texts is far from the same. The genres of scientific works are characterized by a different ratio of terminological and interstyle vocabulary. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation.

Modern society requires from science such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest achievements of the human mind the property of everyone. However, it is often said that science has fenced itself off from the world by a language barrier, that its language is “elitist”, “sectarian”. In order for the vocabulary of a scientific work to be accessible to the reader, the terms used in it must first of all be sufficiently mastered in this field of knowledge, understandable and known to specialists; new terms need to be clarified.

Scientific and technological progress has led to the intensive development of the scientific style and its active influence on other functional styles of the modern Russian literary language. The use of terms outside the scientific style has become a kind of sign of the times.

Studying the process of terminology of speech that is not bound by the norms of the scientific style, the researchers point to distinctive features the use of terms in this case. Many words with precise terminological meaning are widespread and are used without any stylistic restrictions (radio, television, oxygen, heart attack, psychic, privatization). The other group includes words that have a dual nature: they can be used both in the function of terms and as a stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the first case, they differ in special shades of meanings, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. So, the word mountain, meaning in its broad, interstyle usage, “significant elevation rising above the surrounding area,” and having a number of figurative meanings, does not imply an accurate quantitative measurement of height. In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the concepts of a mountain and a hill is essential, a clarification is given: an elevation of more than 200 m in height. Thus, the use of such words outside of the scientific style is associated with their partial determination.

Special features highlight the terminological vocabulary used in a figurative sense (the virus of indifference, the coefficient of sincerity, the next round of negotiations). Such a rethinking of terms is common in journalism, fiction, colloquial speech. A similar phenomenon lies in the mainstream of the development of the language of modern journalism, which is characterized by different kinds style offsets. The peculiarity of such word use is that "there is not only a metaphorical transfer of the meaning of the term, but also a stylistic transfer."

The introduction of terms into unscientific texts should be motivated, the abuse of terminological vocabulary deprives speech of the necessary simplicity and accessibility. Let's compare two versions of the proposals:

The advantage of "non-terminological", clearer and more concise versions in newspaper materials is obvious.

The stylistic coloring of a word indicates the possibility of using it in a particular functional style (in combination with commonly used neutral vocabulary). However, this does not mean that the functional attachment of words to a certain style excludes their use in other styles. The mutual influence and interpenetration of styles, characteristic of the modern development of the Russian language, contributes to the movement lexical means(along with other linguistic elements) from one of them to another. For example, in scientific works you can find journalistic vocabulary next to terms. As M.N. Kozhin, "the style of scientific speech is characterized by expressiveness not only of a logical, but also of an emotional plan." At the lexical level, this is achieved by using foreign-style vocabulary, including high and low.

The journalistic style is even more open to the penetration of foreign-style vocabulary. You can often find terms in it. For example: “Canon 10 replaces five traditional office machines: it works like computer fax, a fax machine working on plain paper, jet printer (360 dpi, scanner and photocopier). You can use the software included with the Canon 10 to send and receive PC faxes directly from your computer screen ”(from gas).

Scientific, terminological vocabulary here can be next to expressively colored colloquial, which, however, does not violate the stylistic norms of publicistic speech, but contributes to strengthening its effectiveness. For example, a description in a newspaper article of a scientific experiment: The Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry has thirty-two laboratories. One of them studies the evolution of sleep. At the entrance to the laboratory there is a sign: "Do not enter: experience!" But from behind the door you can hear the cackling of a chicken. She's not here to lay eggs. Here is a researcher picking up a corydalis. Turns upside down ... Such an appeal to foreign-style vocabulary is quite justified, colloquial vocabulary enlivens newspaper speech, makes it more accessible to the reader.

Of the book styles, only the official business impervious to foreign vocabulary. At the same time, one cannot but take into account “the undoubted existence of mixed speech genres, as well as situations where the mixing of stylistically dissimilar elements is almost inevitable. For example, the speech of various participants in the trial is hardly capable of representing any stylistic unity, but it would also hardly be legitimate to attribute the corresponding phrases entirely to colloquial or entirely to official business speech. "

The appeal to emotional-evaluative vocabulary in all cases is due to the peculiarities of the individual author's manner of presentation. Reduced grammar vocabulary may be used in book styles. In it find a source of enhancing the effectiveness of speech and publicists, and scientists, and even criminologists writing for the newspaper. Here's an example of mixing styles in a traffic information note:

Having driven into the ravine, "Ikarus" ran into an old mine

The bus with the Dnepropetrovsk shuttles was returning from Poland. Exhausted by the long journey, the people were asleep. At the entrance to the Dnipropetrovsk region, the driver also dozed off. The Ikarus, which lost control, left the highway and landed in a ravine. The car rolled over the roof and froze. The blow was strong, but everyone survived. (...) It turned out that in the ravine "Ikarus" ran into a heavy mortar mine ... The "rusty death" turned out of the ground rested right on the bottom of the bus. The sappers were waiting for a long time.

(From newspapers)

Colloquial and even colloquial words, as we see, coexist with official business and professional vocabulary.

The author of a scientific work has the right to use emotional vocabulary with vivid expression if he seeks to influence the feelings of the reader (A will, and space, nature, beautiful surroundings of the city, and these fragrant ravines and swaying fields, and pink spring and golden autumn weren't our educators “Call me a barbarian in pedagogy, but I have derived from the impressions of my life a deep conviction that a beautiful landscape has such a tremendous educational influence on the development of a young soul, with which it is difficult to compete with the influence of a teacher. - KD Ushinsky). Even formal business style can be penetrated by high and low words, if the topic evokes strong emotions.

So, in a Letter sent from the administrative apparatus of the Security Council to the name of the President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin, it says:

According to information received by the apparatus of the Russian Security Council, the situation in the gold mining industry, which forms the country's gold reserves, is approaching critical [...].

The main reason for the crisis is the inability of the state to pay for the gold already received. […] Paradox and absurdity the situation is that the budget for the purchase of precious metals and precious stones has been allocated - 9.45 trillion rubles for 1996. However, these funds are regularly go to mending holes in the budget... Gold miners have not been paid for metal since May - since the beginning of the flushing season.

... Only the Ministry of Finance, which manages budgetary funds, can explain these tricks. Debt for gold prevents miners from continuing to produce the metal, as they unable to pay for "fuel", materials, energy. […] All of this not only aggravates the non-payment crisis and provokes strikes, but also disrupts the flow of taxes to local and federal budgets, destroying the financial fabric of the economy and normal life whole regions. The budget and incomes of residents of about a quarter of the territory of Russia - Magadan Oblast, Chukotka, Yakutia - directly depend on gold mining.

In all cases, no matter what stylistically contrasting means are combined in the context, the appeal to them should be deliberate, not accidental.

1.7.4. Unjustified use of words with different stylistic connotations. Mixing styles

A stylistic assessment of the use of words with different stylistic coloration in speech can only be given in view of a specific text, a specific functional style, since the words necessary in one speech situation are inappropriate in another.

A serious stylistic flaw in speech can be the introduction of journalistic vocabulary into non-publicistic texts. For example: Council of residents of house number 35 decided: to build a playground, which is of great importance in educating the younger generation... The use of journalistic vocabulary and phraseology in such texts can cause a comic, illogical statement, since words of high emotional sounding here act as an alien stylistic element (one could write: the Council of residents of house No. 35 decided to build a playground for children's games and sports.).

In the scientific style, errors arise from the inability of the author to professionally and correctly use terms. In scientific works, it is inappropriate to replace terms with words of a similar meaning, descriptive expressions: air-operated control by means of a load-resistant operator handle, was designed ... (required: hydrant clutch with pneumatic control system...).

Inadmissible inaccurate reproduction of terms, for example: Driver's movements must be restricted safety harness... The term seat belt is used in aviation, in which case the term seat belt should have been used. Confusion in terminology not only damages the style, but also exposes the author of poor knowledge of the subject. For example: Peristaltism of the heart is noted, followed by stopping in the systole phase - the term peristaltism can only characterize the activity of the digestive organs (you should have written: Cardiac fibrillation is noted ...).

The inclusion of terminological vocabulary in texts that do not belong to the scientific style requires a deep knowledge of the subject from the author. An amateurish attitude towards special vocabulary, leading not only to stylistic errors, but also to semantic errors, is unacceptable. For example: At the Central German Canal, they were overtaken by furiously racing cars from a bluish tide with armor-piercing glass - there can be armor-piercing guns, shells, and the glass should have been called impenetrable, bulletproof. Severity in the choice of terms and their use in strict accordance with the meaning - mandatory requirement to texts of any functional style.

The use of terms becomes a stylistic flaw in the presentation if they are incomprehensible to the reader for whom the text is intended. In this case, terminological vocabulary not only does not perform an informative function, but also interferes with the perception of the text. For example, in a popular article, the accumulation of special vocabulary is not justified: In 1763, the Russian heating engineer I.I. Polzunov designed the first multipower two-cylinder steam-atmospheric a car. Only in 1784 was D. Watt's steam engine realized. The author wanted to emphasize the priority of Russian science in the invention of the steam engine, and in this case, the description of the Polzunov machine is superfluous. The following variant of stylistic editing is possible: The first steam engine was created by the Russian heat engineer I.I. Polzunov in 1763 D. Watt designed his steam engine only in 1784.

Passion for terms and book vocabulary in texts that do not belong to the scientific style can cause pseudoscientific presentation. For example, in a pedagogical article we read: Our women, along with work in production, perform and family and household function, which includes three components: childbearing, educational and economic... Or it could have been written more simply: Our women work in production and pay a lot of attention to the family, raising children, and household.

The pseudoscientific style of presentation often causes inappropriate comic speech, so you should not complicate the text where you can express the idea simply. So, in magazines intended for the general reader, such a selection of vocabulary cannot be welcomed: Ladder - specific interfloor connection room preschool institution - has no analogues in none of its interiors. Wouldn't it have been better to abandon the unjustified use of book words by writing: The staircase in preschool institutions connecting the floors has a special interior.

Stylistic errors in book styles can be caused by inappropriate use of colloquial and colloquial words. Their use is unacceptable in a formal business style, for example, in the minutes of meetings: Effective control has been established for the prudent use of feed on the farm; In the regional center and in the villages, the administration has done a certain amount of work, and yet there is a lot of work in the area of ​​improvement. These phrases can be corrected as follows: ... Strictly control the consumption of feed on the farm; The administration has started to improve the district center and villages. This work should be continued.

The use of foreign-style vocabulary is also not motivated in the scientific style. When stylistic editing of scientific texts, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary is successively replaced by interstyle or book vocabulary.

The use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary sometimes leads to a violation of the stylistic norms of publicistic speech. The modern journalistic style is experiencing a strong expansion of vernacular. Many magazines and newspapers are dominated by a reduced style, saturated with evaluative non-literary vocabulary. Here are examples from articles on various topics.

As soon as the wind of change breathed, this praise of the intelligentsia dissipated into commerce, parties and governments. Pulling up her pants, she threw away her disinterestedness and her forehead Panurgs.

And now 1992 ... Philosophers poured out of the ground like russula. Quiet, stunted, not yet accustomed to daylight ... Seemingly good guys, but infected with the eternal domestic self-criticism with a masochistic bias ... (Igor Martynov // Interlocutor. - 1992. - No. 41. - P. 3).

Seven years ago, everyone who was considered the first beauty in the classroom or in the yard came to the Miss Russia contest seven years ago as applicants ... arranged a showdown... This is the fate of many girls who are now working hard on the catwalks in Paris and the Americas (Lyudmila Volkova // MK).

The Moscow government will have to fork out. One of his latest acquisitions - a controlling stake in AMO - ZiL - needs to unfasten 51 billion rubles in September to complete the program of in-line production of the ZiL-5301 light-duty vehicle (Let's take a ride or take a ride // MK).

The fascination of journalists with vernacular, expressive reduced vocabulary in such cases is often stylistically not justified. Permissiveness in speech reflects the low culture of the authors. The editor should not be led by reporters who do not accept stylistic norms.

Stylistic editing of such texts requires the elimination of abbreviated words, processing of sentences. For example:

A characteristic feature of modern journalistic texts is a stylistically unjustified combination of book and colloquial vocabulary. A confusion of styles is often found even in articles by serious authors on political and economic topics. For example: It's no secret that our government is head over heels in debt and, apparently, decides to take a desperate step by running a printing press... However, experts from the Central Bank believe that no collapse is foreseen... Unsecured money is being issued now, so if the bills are drawn, it is unlikely to lead to a financial market collapse (“MK”) in the near future.

Out of respect for the author, the editor does not edit the text, trying to convey to the reader the originality of his individual style. However, the confusion of multi-style vocabulary can give speech an ironic connotation, unjustified in the context, and sometimes inappropriate comic. For example: 1. The management of a commercial enterprise immediately seized on a valuable offer and agreed to an experiment, chasing profits; 2. Representatives of the investigating authorities took a photojournalist with them to arm themselves with irrefutable facts. The editor should correct such stylistic errors by using synonymous substitutions for diminished words. In the first example, you can write: Leaders of a commercial enterprise interested in a valuable offer and agreed to an experiment, hoping for a good profit; in the second, it is enough to replace the verb: they did not take it, but took it with them.

Errors in the use of stylistically colored vocabulary should not be confused, however, with a deliberate mixing of styles, in which writers and publicists find a life-giving source of humor and irony. A parody clash of colloquial and official-business vocabulary is a proven method of creating a comic sound of speech in feuilletons. For example: “Dear Lyubanya! Spring is already coming soon, and in the park where we met, the leaves will turn green. And I love you as before, even more. When, finally, is our wedding, when will we be together? Write, I'm looking forward to it. Your Vasya. " “Dear Vasily! Indeed, the territory of the park where we met will soon turn green. After that, you can begin to resolve the issue of marriage, since the time of the year spring is sometimes love. L. Buravkina ".

1.7.5. Stationery and speech stamps

When analyzing errors caused by the unjustified use of stylistically colored vocabulary, special attention should be paid to the words associated with the official business style. The elements of the official business style, introduced into a stylistically alien context for them, are called clericalisms. It should be remembered that these speech means are called clericalisms only when they are used in speech that is not bound by the norms of the official business style.

The lexical and phraseological clericalisms include words and phrases that have a typical color for the official business style (the presence, in the absence, in order to avoid, to live, withdraw, the above, takes place, etc.). Their use makes speech inexpressive (If there is a desire, a lot can be done to improve the working conditions of workers; Currently, there is a lack of teaching staff).

As a rule, you can find many options for expressing thoughts, avoiding bureaucratic issues. For example, why should a journalist write: There is a negative side to the activity of an enterprise in marriage, if one can say: It is bad when the enterprise releases a marriage; Marriage is unacceptable in work; Marriage is a great evil that must be fought; It is necessary to prevent defects in production; We must finally stop producing defective products !; You can't put up with marriage! A simple and specific formulation has a stronger impact on the reader.

The clerical coloring of speech is often given verbal nouns, formed with the help of suffixes -ni-, -ani-, etc. (identification, finding, taking, blowing up, closing) and indiscriminate (sewing, hijacking, day off). Their clerical shade is aggravated by the prefixes not-, under- (non-detection, underperformance). Russian writers often parodied the syllable, "decorated" with such bureaucracy [The case of gnawing a plan thereof with mice (Hertz.); The case of the entry and breaking of glass by a crow (Pis.); Announcing to the widow Vanina that she did not stick the sixty-kopeck mark ... (Ch.)].

Verbal nouns do not have categories of tense, type, mood, voice, person. This narrows their expressive possibilities in comparison with verbs. For example, such a proposal is devoid of accuracy: From the head of the farm V.I. The slime was negligent in milking and feeding the cows. One might think that the head of the farm did not milk and feed the cows well, but the author only wanted to say that the head of the farm, V.I. Shlyk did nothing to facilitate the work of the milkmaids, to prepare feed for the livestock. The inability to express the meaning of the voice with a verbal noun can lead to an ambiguity of the construction such as the professor's statement (does the professor approve or is it?), I love singing (I like to sing or listen when they sing?).

In sentences with verbal nouns, the predicate is often expressed in a passive participle or reflexive verb, this deprives the action of activity and enhances the clerical coloring of speech

However, not all verbal nouns in the Russian language belong to the official business vocabulary, they are diverse in stylistic coloring, which largely depends on the peculiarities of their lexical meaning and word formation. Verbal nouns with the meaning of a person (teacher, self-taught, confusion, bully), many nouns with the meaning of action (running, crying, playing, washing, shooting, bombing) have nothing to do with clericalism.

Verbal nouns with book suffixes can be divided into two groups. Some are stylistically neutral (meaning, name, excitement), for many of them the -nye changed into -nye, and they began to denote not an action, but its result (compare: baking pies - sweet cookies, cooking cherries - cherry jam). Others retain a close connection with verbs, acting as abstract names for actions, processes (acceptance, non-identification, non-admission). It is precisely such nouns that are most often inherent in clerical coloring, only those who have received a strict terminological meaning in the language (drilling, spelling, adjoining) do not have it.

The use of clericalisms of this type is associated with the so-called "splitting of the predicate", i.e. replacing a simple verbal predicate with a combination of a verbal noun with an auxiliary verb that has a weakened lexical meaning (instead of complicating it, it leads to complication). So, they write: This leads to complication, confusion of accounting and an increase in costs, and it is better to write: This complicates and confuses accounting, increases costs.

However, in the stylistic assessment of this phenomenon, one should not go to the extreme, rejecting any cases of using verb-nominal combinations instead of verbs. In book styles, the following combinations are often used: took part instead of participated, gave an instruction instead of indicated, etc. In the official business style, verb-nominal combinations have been fixed to declare gratitude, accept for execution, impose a penalty (in these cases, the verbs to thank, execute, collect are inappropriate), etc. The scientific style uses terminological combinations such as visual fatigue, self-regulation, transplantation, etc. In a journalistic style, expressions function workers went on strike, there were clashes with the police, an attempt was made on the minister, etc. In such cases, verbal nouns cannot be dispensed with and there is no reason to consider them clerical.

The use of verbal-nominal combinations sometimes even creates conditions for speech expression. For example, the combination to take an active part is more capacious in meaning than the verb to participate. The definition of a noun allows you to give the verb-nominal combination an exact terminological meaning (compare: help - provide emergency medical care). The use of a verb-nominal combination instead of a verb can also contribute to the elimination of the lexical polysemy of verbs (compare: give a beep - hum). The preference for such verb-nominal combinations of verbs, of course, is beyond doubt; their use does not harm the style, but, on the contrary, makes speech more effective.

In other cases, the use of a verbal-nominal combination brings a clerical coloring to the sentence. Let's compare two types of syntactic constructions - with a verb-nominal combination and with a verb:

As you can see, the use of a turnover with verbal nouns (instead of a simple predicate) in such cases is inappropriate - it generates verbosity and burdens the syllable.

The influence of the official business style often explains the unjustified use of abominable pretexts: along the line, in section, in part, in deed, in force, for purposes, in the address, in the region, in the plan, at the level, at the expense, etc. They are widely spread in book styles, and under certain conditions their use stylistically justified. However, infatuation with them often damages the presentation, making the syllable heavier and giving it a clerical color. This is partly due to the fact that abusive prepositions usually require the use of verbal nouns, which leads to stringing of cases. For example: By improving the organization of paying off salary and pension arrears, improving the culture of customer service, turnover in state and commercial stores should increase - the accumulation of verbal nouns, many identical case forms made the proposal heavy and cumbersome. To correct the text, it is necessary to exclude the abbreviated preposition from it, if possible, replace verbal nouns with verbs. Let's assume the following editing option: To increase the turnover in state and commercial stores, you need to pay salaries on time and not delay the pension of citizens, as well as improve the culture of customer service.

Some authors use abbreviated prepositions automatically, without thinking about their meaning, which is partly still preserved in them. For example: Due to the lack of materials, construction has been suspended (as if someone had foreseen that there would be no materials, and therefore the construction was suspended). Incorrect use of abusive prepositions often leads to illogical statements.

Let's compare two versions of the proposals:

The exclusion of abbreviated prepositions from the text, as we see, eliminates verbosity, helps to express a thought more concretely and stylistically correctly.

The use of speech stamps is usually associated with the influence of the official business style. Speech cliches are becoming widespread words and expressions with erased semantics and faded emotional coloring. So, in a variety of contexts, the expression begins to be used in a figurative meaning to get a residence permit (Each ball that flies into the net of the goal receives a permanent residence in the tables; Petrovsky's muse has a permanent residence in the hearts; Aphrodite entered the permanent exhibition of the museum - now she is registered in our city ).

Anything often repeated can become a stamp. speech means, for example, stereotyped metaphors, definitions that have lost their figurative power due to constant reference to them, even hackneyed rhymes (tears are roses). However, in practical stylistics, the term "speech stamp" has received a narrower meaning: this is the name for stereotypical expressions that have a clerical coloration.

Among the speech cliches that have arisen as a result of the influence of the official business style on other styles, one can first of all single out the stereotyped turns of speech: at this stage, in a given period of time, today, he emphasized with all his sharpness, etc. As a rule, they do not add anything to the content of the utterance, but only clog the speech: At a given time a difficult situation has developed with the elimination of debts to supplier enterprises; Currently the payment of wages to miners was taken under unremitting control; At this stage, the spawn of the crucian carp goes well, etc. Excluding the highlighted words will not change anything in the information.

Speech stamps also include universal words that are used in a variety of, often too broad, indefinite meanings (question, event, series, conduct, unfold, separate, specific, etc.). For example, a noun question, acting as a universal word, never indicates what is being asked (Nutrition issues in the first 10-12 days are especially important; Issues of timely collection of taxes from enterprises and commercial structures deserve great attention). In such cases, it can be painlessly excluded from the text (compare: Nutrition in the first 10-12 days is especially important; It is necessary to collect taxes from enterprises and commercial structures in a timely manner).

The word to appear as universal is also often superfluous; This can be seen by comparing two versions of sentences from newspaper articles:

The unjustified use of linking verbs is one of the most common stylistic flaws in the specialized literature. However, this does not mean that a ban should be imposed on linking verbs, their use should be appropriate, stylistically justified.

Speech stamps include paired words, or satellite words; the use of one of them necessarily prompts the use of the other (compare: the event is held, the scope is wide, the criticism is sharp, the problem is unresolved, urgent, etc.). The definitions in these pairs are lexically incomplete, they generate speech redundancy.

Speech cliches, relieving the speaker from the need to look for the necessary, exact words, deprive speech of concreteness. For example: The current season was held at a high organizational level - this proposal can be inserted into the report on hay harvesting, sports competitions, preparation of housing stock for winter, and grape harvest ...

The set of speech stamps changes over the years: some are gradually forgotten, others become "fashionable", so it is impossible to list and describe all the cases of their use. It is important to understand the essence of this phenomenon and to prevent the emergence and spread of cliches.

Language standards should be distinguished from speech stamps. Linguistic standards are called ready-made, reproducible in speech means of expression used in journalistic style. Unlike the cliche, "the standard ... does not evoke a negative attitude, since it has clear semantics and expresses thought sparingly, contributing to the speed of information transfer." The language standards include, for example, such combinations that have become stable: Public sector employees, employment services, international humanitarian aid, commercial structures, law enforcement agencies, branches of the Russian government, according to informed sources, - phrases such as household service (food, health , rest, etc.). These speech units are widely used by journalists, since it is impossible to invent new means of expression in each specific case.

Comparing the journalistic texts of the period of "Brezhnev stagnation" and the 90s, one can note a significant reduction in clericalism and speech stamps in the language of newspapers and magazines. Stylistic "companions" of the command-bureaucratic system left the scene in the "post-communist time". Now the bureaucracy and all the beauties of the bureaucratic style are easier to find in humorous works than in newspaper materials. This style is wittily parodied by Mikhail Zhvanetsky:

A resolution on further deepening the expansion of constructive measures taken as a result of consolidation to improve the state of all-round interaction of all conservation structures and to ensure an even greater intensification of the order of the working people of all masses on the basis of the rotational priority of the future normalization of relations between the same workers on their own order.

The accumulation of verbal nouns, chains of the same case forms, speech stamps firmly "block" the perception of such utterances that cannot be comprehended. Our journalism has successfully overcome this "style", and it "decorates" only the speech of individual speakers and officials in government agencies. However, while they are in their leading positions, the problem of combating clericalism and speech cliches has not lost its relevance.

Words in a language can have one, two or more lexical meanings.

Words with the same lexical meaning are called unambiguous or monosemic.

These words include:

1) various terms (not all): subject, electron;

2) various thematic groups:

a) plant names (birch, poplar);

b) the names of animals (gudgeon, jay);

c) the names of people by occupation (doctor, livestock technician, pilot).

However, most of the words in Russian are ambiguous. The development of polysemy of words is one of the active processes, due to which the vocabulary of the Russian literary language is replenished.

The word used in more than one meaning is called polysemous or polysemic(from the Greek poly - a lot, sema - a sign).

For example: according to D.N. Ushakov's word light

1. Lightweight (light leg);

2. Easy to learn, solve (easy lesson);

3. Small, insignificant (light breeze);

4. Superficial, frivolous (light flirting);

5. Soft, livable (easy character);

6. Unconstrained, graceful (easy syllable);

7. Smooth, smooth, sliding (light gait).

One of these meanings is primary, the original, and the others are secondary, arising as a result of the development of the primary meaning.

The primary value is usually the direct value.

Primary value - this is the main meaning of a word that directly names an object, action, property.

In its direct meaning, the word appears out of context. For example: a forest “many trees growing over a large area”; in a figurative sense: a lot of "forest of hands", not understanding anything "dark forest", building material "logging".

The figurative meaning is secondary. It arises on the basis of the similarity of objects in shape, in color, in the nature of movement, on the basis of association, etc.

There are two main types of figurative meaning of the word - metaphorical and metonymic. As a kind of metonymy - synecdoche.

Let's consider each separately.

Metaphorical transfer.

The essence of this transfer is that the name of an object is transferred to another object, based on the similarity of these objects.

The similarity can be:

1. By form. For example, by the word "beard" we call a small beard of a person - this is a direct meaning. In a figurative sense, we call the beard the protrusions of the keys. Apple is a fruit, a smooth apple.

2. By the similarity of color. Gold is a yellow precious metal, "the gold of her hair" is the color of her hair.

3. By the similarity of size. The pole is a long thin pole, the pole is a long thin man.

4. By the similarity of sounds. Drum - beat the drum, the rain is drumming.

5. Transfer by function: janitor - a person sweeping the yard, street; a device in the machine that serves to clean the glass.

Metaphors are common-linguistic - such a metaphorical meaning of the word, which is widely used and known to everyone who speaks: the head of a nail, the needle of a Christmas tree.

Individually - copyright is not characteristic of the common language. They are created by writers and poets and characterize his stylistic manner. For example, a fire of a red mountain ash, a birch tongue of a grove, a chintz of the sky (S. Yesenin). The river of life began to rumble (Leonov).

Metonymic transfer.

Its essence lies in the fact that the name is transferred from one subject to another on the basis of contiguity.

Adjacency is understood here as spatial contiguity, proximity of an object, temporary contiguity, etc. objects named by the same word may be completely different, but they are located next to each other in space, in time.

1. Transferring the name from the container to its contents: classroom - a room for classes, people in it; class - students (class listened), room; plate - dishes, contents in a plate (ate a bowl of soup).

2. Material - a product made of it: crystal - a type of glass, a product made of it; gold - gold in her ears.

3. Action is the result of this action: jam - the cooking process, berries, boiled in syrup.

5. Action is the object of this action: book edition - illustrated edition.

6. Action - a means or instrument of action: harvesting vegetables - harvesting on the table.

7. Action - place of action: exit from the house - stand at the entrance.

8. Plant - the fruit of a plant: pear, plum.

9. Animal - the fur or flesh of an animal: chicken, mink, eggs.

10. An organ of the body is a disease of this body: stomach - grabbed the stomach, the heart is naughty.

11. The scientist is his image: Ampere, Volt.

12. Locality - a product invented, made there: Kashimir - a city in India, fabric; Boston is a city in England, fabric.

13. Time - events that took place at that time, year: it was 1918, 1941.

As a result of metonymy, a number of common nouns appeared, formed from proper names: volt, ampere, Ohm, boston, mac.

Synecdoche.

This type of lexical transfer is based on the following principle: the name is transferred from part to whole and vice versa.

For example, a "head" is a part of the body of a person or animal.

This title can be carried over to the whole person.

From part to whole. Headache - direct meaning.

Borya - bright head - portable (synecdoche).

A herd of 20 heads.

The mouth is part of the face - direct meaning.

“We have 5 mouths in our family” - portable.

A car is any mechanism, a car.

From the whole A tool is some technical device (a tool for a part of labor) - a direct meaning; the cannon is portable.

Synecdoche, as a special type of transfer, is combined by many scientists with metonymy and is considered as its kind.

Some of the characteristic features of a person are often used to designate this person, to refer to him. Especially typical is this use of words for colloquial speech: "I am behind a little blue hat." "Hey, beard, where are you climbing?"

Little Red Riding Hood is a classic example of synecdoche.

The vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin.

Plan.

1. Primordially Russian vocabulary.

2. Borrowed vocabulary.

3. Old Slavicisms, their signs and use in modern Russian.

East Slavic vocabulary - these are words that arose in the period from the 6th to the 15th centuries, common among the languages ​​of the East Slavic group: Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian. These words are absent in other Slavic languages..

For example:

Absolutely (Russian) zusim (Ukrainian) zusim (bel.);

Snowfall; Snowfall; Snowfall;

Get some kindness dabrets.

The East Slavic layer presents a rather diverse vocabulary, reflecting in all its diversity the political, economic and cultural life of the Old Russian state.

During this period, many words arise on the basis of common Slavic vocabulary:

Bullfinch (Russian);

Snow< снiгур (укр.);

Sniagir (white);

Compound numbers: eleven, forty, ninety;

Compound words: hunchbacked, today;

Suffix words - finch, blackberry, pantry.

4. The actual Russian vocabulary.

In the 14th century, due to the disintegration of Kievan Rus, the Old Russian language splits into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Russian (Great Russian) nationality was formed.

Russian vocabulary proper - these are words that have arisen since the formation of the Russian nationality and continue to arise to the present.

Words and morphemes of primordial Russian origin served as the basis for the creation of the Russian vocabulary proper. those. common Slavic, East Slavic:

1. Almost all words with suffixes: chik / shchik, nick, - telstv, - lk, - nost mason, wallet, teacher, mower;

2. Many compound words: steamer, airplane, steel progress;

3. Words with prefixes for, before, for and with the suffix sya: look, wake up, start talking;

4. Abbreviations: JSC - joint-stock company, CJSC - closed joint-stock company, LLC - limited liability company, PSC - private security company.

Depending on which sign the meaning is transferred from one object to another, the following types of figurative meanings of the word are distinguished.

1) Transferring values ​​by some similarities between objects, phenomena. Such portable values ​​are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their features (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) the head of the bow, the eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of the boat, the tail of the train, the head of the nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) janitor (in the meaning of "cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electric position, watchman (in the meaning of "device on the dishes for holding boiling milk") - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.

Many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word are characterized by anthropomorphism, that is, the assimilation of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare such examples: evil wind, indifferent nature, breath of spring, "The river is playing" (the title of the story by VG Korolenko), the stream is running, the volcano has woken up, etc.

On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold gaze, an iron will, a stone heart, a golden character, a shock of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. Metaphors are general language, when a particular metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to everyone who speaks a given language (nail head, sleeve of a river, black envy, iron will), and individual created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming widespread. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: a fire of a red mountain ash, a birch tongue of a grove, chintz of the sky, grains of eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the rolls of the lanterns and the puffs of the roofs, etc.

2) Transferring the name from one subject to another based on adjacencies these items. This transfer of values ​​is called metonymy(from the Greek. Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic hyphenation of a value is often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product made from this material. For example, the words gold, crystal can mean products made of these materials (she has gold in her ears; solid crystal on the shelves);
b) vessel - the contents of the vessel (ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) the author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - an object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, an illustrated publication of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of an action (construction of a monument - a monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (filling of cracks - fresh putty, fastening of tackle - ski binding, transmission of motion - bicycle transmission);
g) action - place of action (exit from the house - stand at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - fur or animal meat (a hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur, arctic fox or fox?).

One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche(from the Greek. Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both part of something and the whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand denote the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: entry is prohibited to unauthorized persons; in family five mouths; Kolya- light head.