Syntactic means of speech ingenuity (figures of speech). Syntactic figures

The first description of the figures of speech has been known since the time of Aristotle's Poetics. The great scientist called the tropes of speech an indispensable part of the science of eloquence.

Tracks of speech include rhetorical figures, repeat figures, decrease figures, and displacement figures.

Rhetorical figures of speech

Rhetorical figures are a special group of syntactic figures that are formally dialogical, but essentially monologic: the interlocutor is assumed, but he does not participate in speech.

A rhetorical question is a turn, decorated with a question mark and reinforcing the emotionality of perception. The answer to the rhetorical question is not expected. Example: "Who are the judges?" (A.S. Griboyedov).

Rhetorical - a turn of speech, decorated with an exclamation mark and reinforcing the emotionality of perception. Example: "The poet is dead!" (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Rhetorical appeal is an appeal that is used to attract attention. Example: "Heavenly clouds!" (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Rhetorical default is fixed by ellipsis. The turnover is characterized by syntactic incompleteness. The meaning of rhetorical silence lies in creating the effect of meaningfulness at the expense of understatement. Example: “It's not about that, but still, nevertheless, nevertheless ...” (AT Tvardovsky).

Repeat shapes

The common thing for repetition figures is that they are built on the repetition of some part of the utterance.

Anaphora is a syntactic figure built on the repetition of a word or groups of words at the beginning of several. Example: “I like that you are not sick with me, I like that I am not with you” (MI Tsvetaeva).

Epiphora - at the end of several verses or. Example: "The candle was burning on the table, the candle was burning" (BL Pasternak).

Anadiplosis (joint) - the repetition of a word or group of words at the end of a verse or at the beginning of a verse or stanza. Example: "He fell on the cold snow, On the cold snow, like a pine tree ..." (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Prosopodosis (ring) - repeat at the beginning of a verse and at the end of the next verse or stanza. Example: “The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy” (AS Pushkin).

Decrease figures

Decrease figures are a group of figures based on the violation of grammatical connections between the members of a sentence.

Ellipsis (ellipse) - omission of the implied word. Example: "Ticket - click, Cheek - smack" (V.V. Mayakovsky).

Syllepsis (sylleps) - unification in general syntactic subordination is not homogeneous members... Example: "It was raining and two students."

Non-union (asyndeon) - skipping unions between or parts complex sentence... Example: "Balls are rolling, bullets are whistling, Cold bayonets are hanging" (AS Pushkin).

Multi-union - an excessive number of unions. Example: "... And deity, and inspiration, And life, and tears, and love" (AS Pushkin).

Displacement shapes

Displacement figures are a group of figures based on permutation, changing the traditional positions of the members of the proposal.

Gradation is a figure in which homogeneous ones line up to increase the intensity of a feature or action. Example: “No, I don’t call, I don’t cry ...” (SA Yesenin).

Inversion is a violation of the usual word order. Example: "A blue fire swept around ..." (SA Yesenin).

Syntactic parallelism is the same or similar arrangement of sentence members in adjacent parts of the text. Example: "Soon the tale will tell, but it will take a long time before the work is done."

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1. Syntactic tools speech ingenuity (figures of speech)

Speech (rhetorical, stylistic) figures are any linguistic means that impart imagery and expressiveness to speech. Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic.

Semantic figures speeches - are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger sections of text that have special semantic significance.

These include:

· comparison- a stylistic figure based on a figurative transformation of a grammatically designed juxtaposition. Example: Crazy years, extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin); Under it is a stream of brighter blue (M. Yu. Lermontov);

· ascending gradation- a figure of speech, consisting of two or more units, arranged in an increasing intensity of meaning: I ask you, I ask you very much, I beg you;

· Descending gradation - a figure that creates a comic effect by violating the principle of growth. Example: A lady who is not afraid of the devil himself and even of a mouse (M. Twain);

· zeugma- a figure of speech that creates a humorous effect due to grammatical or semantic heterogeneity and incompatibility of words and combinations: He drank tea with his wife, with lemon and with pleasure; It was raining and three students, the first in a coat, the second to the university, the third in a bad mood;

· pun- a figure that is a play on words, the intentional combination in one context of two meanings of the same word or the use of similarities in the sound of different words to create a comic effect. Example: There are no colors in her creations, but there are too many of them on her face (P. A. Vyazemsky);

· antithesis- a stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts. The lexical basis of this figure is antonymy, the syntactic basis is the parallelism of constructions. Example: Easy to make friends, hard to be separated; the smart will teach, the fool will get bored;

· oxymoron- a figure of speech, consisting in attributing to a concept an attribute incompatible with this concept, in a combination of concepts opposite in meaning: a living corpse; young old people; hurry slowly.

Syntactic figures speeches - are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, a sentence or a group of sentences in the text. In syntactic figures of speech, the main role is played by syntactic form, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the semantic content. By the quantitative composition of syntactic constructions, the figures of decrease and figures of addition are distinguished.

TO figures subtraction relate:

· ellipsis- a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that one of the components of the statement is not mentioned, is omitted in order to give the text more expressiveness, dynamism: They decided to bake the rabbit foxes, and the rabbit from the oven jumped onto the oven, then onto the bench and into the window from the bench (I A. Kozlovsky);

· aposiopesis- deliberately incomplete statement: Here he will return and then ...;

· prosiopesis- omission of the initial part of the statement. For example, the use of a patronymic instead of a name and patronymic;

· calm down- characteristic of colloquial speech, the combination of two sentences into one statement containing a common term: There is a person sitting there waiting for you.

TO figures additions relate:

· repeat- a figure, consisting in the repetition of a word or sentence in order to emphasize, strengthen thought;

· anadiplosis(pickup) - a figure of speech, constructed in such a way that a word or a group of words is repeated at the beginning of the next segment: It will come, as big as a sip, - a sip of water during the heat of summer (VA Rozhdestvensky);

· prolepsa- the simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it. Example: Coffee is hot.

By the arrangement of the components of the syntactic structure, such a figure of speech as inversion is distinguished. Inversion - this is a rearrangement of the syntactic components of the sentence, violating their usual order: He dug up worms, brought fishing rods; There is a cast-iron pattern of your fences (A.S. Pushkin).

Expanding the function of the syntactic construct is at the heart of the rhetorical question.

Rhetorical question - an interrogative sentence in structure, but narrative in terms of the purpose of the statement. A rhetorical question is a rhetorical figure that is a question to which there is no answer. In fact, a rhetorical question is a question that is not required or expected to be answered due to its extreme obviousness. In any case, an interrogative statement implies a very definite, well-known answer, so that a rhetorical question, in fact, is a statement expressed in an interrogative form. For example, asking the question "How many yet we we will tolerate this injustice?" does not expect an answer, but wants to emphasize that "We tolerate injustice, moreover too much for a long time" and, as it were, hints that "It's time already to stop her tolerate and undertake something on this occasion ".

A rhetorical question is used to enhance the expressiveness (emphasis, emphasis) of a particular phrase. A characteristic feature of these phrases is convention, that is, the use of the grammatical form and intonation of the question in cases that, in essence, do not require it. A rhetorical question, as well as a rhetorical exclamation and rhetorical address, are peculiar turns of speech that enhance its expressiveness - the so-called. figures. Distinctive feature of these turns is their convention, that is, the use of interrogative, exclamatory, etc. intonation in cases that essentially do not require it, due to which the phrase in which these turns are used acquires a particularly emphasized shade that enhances its expressiveness. So, a rhetorical question is, in essence, a statement expressed only in an interrogative form, due to which the answer to such a question is already known in advance. Example: Can I see faded beauty in the splendor of a new Dream? Can I clothe nudity again with the veil of the Familiar life? - V.A. Zhukovsky.

Obviously, the meaning of these phrases is in the assertion of the impossibility of returning "dreams to faded beauty", etc .; the question is a conditional rhetorical phrase. But thanks to the form of the question, the author's attitude to the phenomenon in question becomes much more expressive and emotionally colored.

2. Russian accent. Variants of stress words and word forms

Accent norms -- one of the most important problems of the Russian language. They are numerous and not easy to digest. The stress is learned along with the word: you need to remember it, translate it into a speech skill. It is often easier and faster to remember the wrong stress, which is very difficult to eliminate later. This is the task of a literate person. -- master the rules of stress and correctly apply them in practice. Russian stress is distinguished by the presence of more pronunciation options than stress in other languages (for example, in French the stress always falls on the last syllable). Difficulties in mastering Russian stress are associated with two of its features: diversity and mobility.

Diversity -- this is the ability of stress to fall on any syllable of a Russian word: on the first -- and write on the second -- ekspermrt, on the third -- blinds, on the fourth -- apartments. In many languages of the world, stress is attached to a specific syllable. Mobility -- this is the property of stress to move from one syllable to another when changing (declension or conjugation) of the same word: waters -- womdu, hozhum -- you homd. Most of the words of the Russian language (about 96%) have a movable stress. The diversity and mobility, the historical variability of pronunciation norms lead to the appearance of accent variants in one word. Sometimes one of the options is considered by the dictionaries as conforming to the norm, and the other -- as wrong. Compare: broke, magamzin -- not right; put, store -- right. Sometimes the options are given in dictionaries as equal: clear and sparkling. In connection with such difficulties in the study of stress in the Russian language, accent variants of words appear. There are several main reasons for the appearance of accent variations. The law of analogy. In this case, a large group of words with a certain type of stress affects a smaller, similar in structure. In the word thinking, the stress moved from the root to the suffix -ini- by analogy with the words beating, driving, etc. not suffixed. This must be remembered! False analogy. The words gas pipeline, garbage chute are mispronounced by a false analogy with the word wire with an accent on the penultimate syllable: gas production, waste production. This is incorrect, since in these complex words the stress falls on the last syllable (in the second part of the word).

The tendency of grammaticalization of stress -- development of the ability of stress to distinguish the forms of words. For example, with the help of stress, they distinguish between the forms of the indicative and imperative mood: adjust, force, numb and discipline, force, sip. Mixing stress patterns. More often this reason acts in borrowed words, but it can also manifest itself in Russian. Usually difficulties arise with words borrowed from Greek or Latin. They are often similar, but the emphasis is different.

The action of the tendency towards rhythmic balance. This tendency manifests itself only in four- and five-syllable words. If the between-stress interval (the distance between the stresses in adjacent words) turns out to be greater than the critical one (the critical interval is equal to four unstressed syllables in a row), then the stress moves to the previous syllable.

Professional pronunciation: imskra (for electricians), compams (for sailors), boy (for sellers), bite, amlcohol, syringes (for doctors), etc.

Trends in the development of stress. In two-syllable and three-syllable masculine nouns, there is a tendency to shift the stress from the last syllable to the previous one (regressive stress). For some nouns, this process is over. They used to say: tokamr, konkamrs, nasmirk, ghost, despomt, symbol, air, pearl, epigraph with an accent on the last syllable. In other words, the process of transition of stress continues to this day and is manifested in the presence of options.

A large group of words in Russian has several accentological variants. Only a few of these options in the literary language are equivalent (Tvomg and tvomrog, barges and bamrzha, camphor and camphor, combiner and combine, chip and pinch).

Typically, options differ in scope:

So, one of the options in the literary language can be the main one (cf. - optional, acceptable, but less desirable. (cf .: bezdemrzhny, devimchy, got busy).

· Other options may be non-literary (vernacular, dialectal).

For example, in the literary language, pronunciation is unacceptable (!) These are colloquial accentological options. Literary pronunciation options: engaged, documint, store, kilomemtr, quarter, alcohol, youth.

· In case of difficulty, the stress in words and forms of words can be checked using explanatory, spelling and special, orthoepic dictionaries.

3. Norms of speaking

language speech semantic word

The culture of speech develops the skills of selecting and using language means in the process of verbal communication, helps to form a conscious attitude to their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks.

Being modern means also in the field oral speech proceed from the norms adopted at the present time, and those who by their speech seeks to influence others cannot afford non-normative elements. Knowledge of the norm is a prerequisite for competent and expressive speech, free and interesting communication.

“In order to fully communicate,” writes A.A. Leontiev, - a person must have a number of skills. He must quickly and correctly navigate in the conditions of communication; be able to properly plan your speech, choose the right content of the act of communication, find adequate means to convey this content, be able to provide feedback. If any of the links in the act of communication is violated, then it will be ineffective. "

Serious work on yourself and your speech begins only when you clearly understand why you need it. Linguists, studying oral speech, concluded that it is structurally different from written language. Basically, they are similar, otherwise it would be impossible to retell what was read, and what was said could not be written down. If in written speech there is one channel of information, then in oral speech there are two: a) information that is contained in the spoken words and b) information that is received in addition to words, which accompanies speech in one way or another, associated with words.

Conversational speech, due to its two-channel nature, is distinguished by great heuristic, creative possibilities. Writer and philosopher M.M. Prishvin repeatedly referred to this thesis: "To the last extreme, we must beware of the use of philosophical concepts and stick to the language, whispering about everything with a close friend, always realizing that we can say with this language more than a thousand years the philosophers tried to say something and did not say" ...

Colloquial speech functions in the sphere of everyday, everyday communication. This speech is realized in the form of a relaxed, unprepared monologue or dialogical speech on everyday topics, as well as in the form of private, unofficial correspondence. The ease of communication is understood as the absence of an attitude towards a message that has an official character, an informal relationship between speakers and the absence of facts that violate the informality of communication, for example, strangers. Colloquial speech only functions in the private sphere of communication, and in the sphere of mass communication it is unacceptable. Conversational speech can affect not only everyday topics: for example, conversation with a family in informal relationships, about art, science, spot, conversations in public institutions. However, for example, colloquial speech is not prepared, and the topic of the conversation is related to the professional activities of the speakers, therefore, scientific vocabulary is used in it. The form of implementation is predominantly oral.

The colloquial and everyday style is contrasted with the book styles, since they function in certain spheres of social activity. However, colloquial speech includes not only specific linguistic means, but also neutral ones, which are the basis of the literary language. Within the limits of the literary language, spoken language is contrasted with the codified language as a whole.

But codified literary language and spoken language are two subsystems within the literary language. The main features of the conversational style are the already mentioned casual and informal nature of communication, as well as the emotional and expressive coloring of speech. Therefore, all the richness of intonation, facial expressions, gestures is often used. One of critical features is the reliance on an extra-linguistic situation, that is, the immediate environment of speech in which communication takes place.

Conversational speech has its own lexical and grammatical features. A characteristic feature of this speech is its lexical diversity. Here one can find the most diverse thematically and stylistically groups of vocabulary: general book vocabulary, terms, and foreign language borrowings, some facts of vernacular, jargon. This is explained, firstly, by the thematic variety of colloquial speech, not limited to the framework of everyday topics, everyday remarks, and secondly, by the implementation of colloquial speech in two keys - serious and playful, and in the latter case, the use of various elements is possible. Syntactic structures also have their own characteristics. For colloquial speech, constructions with particles and interjections are typical. The word order in this speech is different from that used in writing. Here the main information is concentrated at the beginning of the utterance. And in order to receive attention to the main thing, they use intonation.

In colloquial speech, clericalisms penetrate and we can note ridiculous combinations of stylistically incompatible words: What question are you crying about ?; If I have a wife, I will not wash the dishes! Another distinctive feature the colloquial speech of our time has become its saturation with diminutive forms, without stylistic motivation: Hello! Have you prepared the material ?; Give a reference; Sausages a pound, etc. In such cases, we are not talking about the size of objects, a particularly tender attitude towards them is not expressed, in other words, the evaluative value of expressively colored words is lost. The use of such forms is due either to a complex notion of "polite style", or to the degraded position of the applicant who is afraid of being rejected. Writers diminutive forms evaluative words becomes a source of ironic, coloring of speech: Well, how good are we all! How beautiful and pleasant! And that one who pushed the old woman away with his elbow and got on the bus instead of her! And that one that has been sweeping the lane for three days already. There is a high degree of use of lowered words in colloquial speech, which in this case lose their tone of disdain and rudeness: My grandmother is good; The girl walked with him beautiful.

The largest stylistic layer of phraseology is colloquial phraseology, which is used in oral communication: a week without a year, black sheep, slipshod. Colloquial phraseological units are figurative, which gives them a special expression, liveliness. Colloquial phraseology as a whole, close to colloquial, is characterized by a great decline: to correct the brains, to scratch with the tongue; The coarse-vernacular phraseology sounds even sharper: the law is not written for fools; no skin, no faces. It includes abusive combinations representing gross violation linguistic form. The use of phraseological units imparts painting and imagery to speech. This is appreciated by journalists who willingly turn to feuilletons and essays: The director, an atheist to the core, does not believe in either the brownie or the devil. Humorists and satirists are especially fond of using phraseological units.

4. Functions of punctuation marks in the text

Punctuation marks are used to separate sentences from each other in the text, to separate and highlight semantic segments in a sentence. They are divided into three groups: separating (in the text), separating and excretory (in the sentence).

Separating signs punctuation

These include period, question mark, exclamation mark, ellipsis. They are used:

· To separate each word of the sentence from the next in the text;

· To design a separate offer as a complete one.

The choice of one of the four separating signs is determined by the meaning and intonation of the sentence.

Signs punctuation v the end suggestions

Rules: At the end of the narrative and incentive sentences, a full stop is put if they do not additionally express emotions (feelings). A question mark is placed at the end of interrogative sentences. At the end of any sentence on the purpose of the statement, an exclamation mark is placed if feeling is additionally expressed in them. An ellipsis is placed at the end of a sentence if the writer pauses for a long time.

Dividing signs punctuation

These include: comma, semicolon, dash, colon. Separating punctuation marks serve in a simple sentence to indicate boundaries between homogeneous members (comma and semicolon), in a complex one - to separate simple sentences included in its composition. The choice of separating punctuation marks is determined by morphological, syntactic, semantic and intonational conditions.

Excretory signs punctuation

Highlighted punctuation marks serve to denote the boundaries of semantic segments that complicate a simple sentence (references, introductory words, phrases, sentences, isolated minor members), as well as direct speech.

Punctuation marks are: comma (two commas); dash (two dashes); Exclamation point; double brackets; colon and dash, used together; double quotes. The choice of emphasis punctuation marks is determined by syntactic, semantic and intonation conditions.

5. Correctness of speech: grammatical norms

Right speeches - this is the observance of the linguistic norms of the modern Russian literary language. Speakers and writers from the point of view of the norm rate speech as correct (norm) or incorrect (error). The norms in the modern Russian literary language are phonetic, lexico-phraseological, derivational, morphological, syntactic, stylistic.

Phonetic norms - these are the norms of pronunciation of the sounds of the modern Russian literary language, the staging of stress in words and the observance of the correct intonation.

Lexico-phraseological norms - these are the norms for the use of words and phraseological units in their characteristic lexical meaning and the norms for combining words and phraseological units with other words in a sentence.

Morphological norms - these are the norms of inflection when declining nominal parts of speech, pronouns and participles, and when conjugating verbs. With abnormal inflection, morphological errors occur. For example, "no time", "prettier", "lie down", etc.

Inflection rates are studied in morphology. They are described in the reference book "Difficulties of Word Usage and Variants of the Norms of the Russian Literary Language", ed. K. S. Gorbachevich. D., 1973.

Syntactic norms - these are the norms for constructing syntactic structures - phrases and sentences. With the non-normative construction of phrases and sentences, syntax errors occur. For example, "approaching the city, a business conversation started between them."

The rules for constructing phrases and sentences are studied in the syntax.

Stylistic norms - this is the ability to use the language inherent in it in a particular functional style. Stylistic norms are studied in stylistics. Failure to master the ability to use linguistic means in accordance with the requirements of the style leads to stylistic errors. For example, “Announce gratitude to the conductor”; "Pretty little rivers flow along the Russian plain."

Grammatical norms - these are the rules for the use of forms of different parts of speech, as well as the rules for constructing a sentence. Compliance with pronunciation norms has essential for the quality of our speech. The grammatical norms include morphological norms and syntactic ones.

Morphological norms - rules for the use of morphological forms of different parts of speech. A Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expressing grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.

Syntactic norms - these are the norms for the correct construction of phrases and sentences. Compliance with syntactic norms is the most important condition for correct speech.

Syntactic norms include the rules for the agreement of words and syntactic control, correlating parts of a sentence with each other using grammatical forms of words in order to make the sentence a literate and meaningful utterance. Violation of syntactic norms leads to syntax errors different types... For example, there is a violation of syntactic norms in the following proposals: Reading the book, the question arises about the future of the country. The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles. After marrying his brother, none of the children were born alive.

6. Proverbs and sayings and features of their use in speech

Proverb is a short, rhythmically organized, figurative saying that is stable in speech.

A proverb is the property of an entire people or a significant part of it and contains a general judgment or instruction for some occasion in life.

A proverb is the most curious genre of folklore, studied by many scientists, but in many respects remained incomprehensible and mysterious. A proverb is a popular saying in which not the opinion of individual people is expressed, but the people's assessment, the people's mind. It reflects the spiritual image of the people, aspirations and ideals, judgments about the most different sides life. Everything that is not accepted by the majority of people, their thoughts and feelings, does not take root and is eliminated. A proverb lives in speech, only in it a capacious proverb acquires its specific meaning.

Created over the centuries, passing from generation to generation, proverbs and sayings supported the way of life of the people, strengthened the spiritual and moral image of the people. It's like the commandments of the people, regulating the life of everyone. common man... This is an expression of the thoughts that people came to through centuries of experience. A proverb is always instructive, but not always instructive. However, each leads to a conclusion that is useful to take into account.

Proverb - This is a widespread figurative expression that aptly defines any life phenomenon. Unlike proverbs, sayings are devoid of a direct generalized instructive meaning and are limited to a figurative, often allegorical expression: it’s easy at sight, like snow on your head, to beat the thumbs - all these are typical sayings, devoid of the character of a complete judgment. But, a proverb, to an even greater extent than a proverb, conveys an emotionally expressive assessment of various life phenomena. A proverb exists in speech in order to express precisely and, above all, the feelings of the speaker. So, the proverb condemns the work that is done rudely, as necessary, somehow: "Get it down, then we'll figure it out."

Proverbs should be distinguished from sayings. Main feature proverb is its completeness and didactic content. The proverb is distinguished by the incompleteness of the inference, the absence of an instructive character. Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish a proverb from a saying, or to draw a clear line between these genres. A proverb borders on a proverb, and in the case of joining one word to it or changing the order of words, the proverb becomes a proverb. In oral speech, sayings often become proverbs, and proverbs become sayings. For example, the proverb It is easy to rake in heat with someone else's hands is often used, as a proverb To rake in heat with someone else's hands, that is, a figurative image of a lover of someone else's labor.

Sayings, due to their peculiarity of figurative expressions, more often than proverbs, approach linguistic phenomena. There is more national, national significance and meaning in sayings than in proverbs. All the properties of linguistic phenomena are often inherent in sayings. This is the expression to put a pig on, that is, to make someone a nuisance. The origin of this saying is associated with the military system of the ancient Slavs. The squad became a "wedge", like a boar's head, or "pig", as the Russian chronicles called this system. Over time, the meaning put into this expression in antiquity has been lost.

The people expressed the difference between them in the proverb: a proverb is a flower, and a proverb is a berry, ”indicating that a proverb is something unfinished, with a hint of judgment.

Not every dictum became a proverb, but only one that was consistent with the lifestyle and thoughts of many people - such a dictum could exist for millennia, a transition from century to century. Behind each of the proverbs is the authority of the generations who created them. Therefore, proverbs do not argue, they do not prove - they simply affirm or deny something in the belief that everything they say is a solid truth. Listen to how definitely and categorically they sound: “What you sow, you will shake it”, “The tambourines are just around the corner, and they will come to us like a basket”, “They don’t go to a strange monastery with their own charter.”

The people who created the proverbs did not know literacy, and the common people had no other way to keep their life experience and their observations. If we take folk proverbs in their entirety, then we will see that they reflect the mentality of the people in all its diversity and contradictions, moreover, they are an important part of national traits, way of life, and its moral standards. The proverb calls to follow her wisdom, they even say: "As the proverb says, so act." The proverb instills confidence in people that the experience of the people does not miss anything and does not forget anything. The proverb is almost the first brilliant manifestation of the creativity of the people.

Forced baptism into the Christian faith became a borderline in the popular consciousness and brought to life the proverb "Do baptize with a sword, Putyata with fire." Proverbs that appeared after the baptism of Rus began to combine the most ancient pagan ideas with a new faith - the pagan gods and Christian saints joined together: "Yegoriy and Vlas - to all the wealth of eyes." In a mockery of the old cult functions, which were extremely diverse in different localities, the converts to the new faith put down the proverb "Churches are not barns, in them all images are one."

For centuries, proverbs lived among the people, reflecting the dependence of the peasant on secular and spiritual feudal lords: on princes and monasteries. No less clearly expressed in proverbs is the direct connection of peasant labor with nature and dependence on its whims, the strength of the established patriarchal structure in the family, in the “world” (community).

In the era of feudal relations, the peasantry became serfs. There are many proverbs about serfdom. The peasants, realizing their lack of rights, said: "The worldly neck is thick" (it will take a lot).

The invasion of the Tatar-Mongol conquerors sharpened the feeling of connection with their native land. Numerous patriotic proverbs of the Russian people date back to the days of fierce battles ancient Russia for independence: "From your native land - die, but do not leave."

The growth of cities and the development of trade had a strong impact on the countryside: "And the dear goods from the earth are growing." The entry into the path of commodity-money relations, the transformation of peasants into commodity producers were reflected in thousands of proverbs, shrewdly revealing the ruthless laws of the market: "Money is not God, but half of God is." "Everything obeys money."

The proverbs reflected not only the "big" world of the most important social relations, but also the "small" world - private life, the relationship of people to each other in the family, in home life... Whether a peasant or a city dweller married a son, gave a daughter in marriage, punished a thief, grieved about the health of loved ones, or pondered the transience of life - there were proverbs for all occasions.

Many successful expressions from works fiction become proverbs and sayings. "Happy hours do not watch", "How not to please a loved one", "The Molchalins are blissful in the world", "Not to greet from such praises", "More in number, at a cheaper price" - here are a few sayings from the comedy of A.S. Griboyedov "Woe from Wit", which are used in the language as proverbs. Love for all ages; We all look at Napoleons; What passes will be nice; And happiness was so possible - all these lines from the works of A.S. Pushkin can often be heard in oral speech. A man exclaiming: "There is still gunpowder in the flasks!" - may sometimes not know that these are words from the story of N.V. Gogol's "Taras Bulba".

I.A. Krylov, who relied in his work on a lively spoken language and often introduced folk proverbs and sayings into his fables, himself created many proverbial expressions: "And Vaska listens, but eats"; "And nothing has changed"; “But I didn't even notice the elephant”; "An obliging fool is more dangerous than the enemy"; “The cuckoo praises the rooster for praising the cuckoo”; "What to consider as gossips, is it not better to turn to yourself, godfather?"

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5. Rhetoric. Reader workshop. Muranov A.A. M .: Ross. teacher. Agency, 1997

6. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / Ed. prof. IN AND. Maximova. M .: Gardariki, 2002

7.L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook. manual for universities. Posts N / A. Production of "PHOENIX" 2001

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Internet illustration.

THE POETIC LANGUAGE (continued)

The next section of this chapter is devoted to the second group of artistic means by which the Poetic image is born. These are special ways of constructing sentences - syntactic (stylistic) figures of speech.

ANADIPLOSIS (from the Greek "repetition") - the repetition of the last word (group of words) of the previous sentence at the beginning of the next:
Oh, spring, without end and without edge,
Endless and endless dream! (A. Blok)

ANAFORA (from the Greek "anaphora" - bringing up) - repetition of the same elements at the beginning of sentences or lines. There are types of it:

1.sound (repetition of the same sounds):
Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm
Coffins from a blurred cemetery. (A. Pushkin)
2.morpheme (repetition of the same morphemes):
Black-eyed girl
Black-maned horse! (M.Lermontov)
3.lexical (repetition of the same words):
The winds were not blowing in vain
The thunderstorm was not in vain. (S. Yesenin)
4.syntactic (repetition of the same syntactic constructions, that is, parallelism):
Do I wander along the noisy streets,
Am I entering a crowded temple
I am sitting among the mad young men,
I surrender to my dreams. (A. Pushkin)
5. stanza (repetition of the same words at the beginning of the stanzas). Examples - M. Lermontov ("When the yellowing cornfield is agitated"), K. Simonov ("Wait for me").

EPIFORA - repetition of words at the end of lines:

Sunshine in the morning in a well of lakes
He looked - not a month ...
It dangled its legs on a hillock,
Clicked - there is no month ... (S. Yesenin)

If the same words are repeated in the middle of the line, then in front of you is another figure - SIMPLE:

We have a road for young people everywhere,
We have honor everywhere for old people. (V. Lebedev-Kumach)

ANTITESIS (from the Greek "antithesis") is an opposition that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech and feelings.

The basis of the antithesis is antonyms (Greek "anti" - against, "onyma" - name) - words with the opposite meaning:

Memory has the following property:
After the worst adversity
Forgotten quickly BAD
A GOOD live long. (K.Vanshenkin)

Each word, when meeting with the opposite in meaning, is revealed more fully. A vivid example of the use of this technique in poetry is the poems of Francois Villon, read by him at a poetry competition at the court of Charles of Orleans, who loved word games... Ilya Ehrenburg translated them:

I'm dying of thirst over the stream.
I laugh through tears and work hard to play.
Wherever I go, everywhere is my home
A foreign country to me is my native country.
I know everything - I know nothing.
Of all people, I understand the one that
Who calls a swan a raven.
I doubt the obvious, I believe in a miracle.
Naked as a worm, more magnificent than all the masters,
I am accepted by all, banished from everywhere.

Types of antonyms:
1) mixed roots (good - bad, clean - dirty),

2) single-rooted (good - unkind, public - antisocial),

3) contextual, acquiring the opposite meaning only in a specific text, as, for example, in Derzhavin:
Where the table was of food, there is a coffin.

Here, "food" (a symbol of abundance) and "coffin" (a symbol of death) are contrasted, although in ordinary speech they are not at all antonyms.

GRADATION - a chain of homogeneous members with a gradual increase (called climax) or decrease (anti-climax) significance or feelings:

“I came, I saw, I conquered”, the famous phrase of Caesar, - graduation-climax.
An example of an anti-climax gradation:
No one will give us deliverance
Neither god, nor king, nor hero.
("International")

INVERSION is a violation of the usual word order, when the necessary word is put in an unusual place for it. If a poet wants to emphasize the importance of something, he puts the desired word at the beginning of the line or at the end, making it logically stressed. Inversion examples:
a) the definition comes after the word being defined:
I am sitting behind bars in a dungeon RAW ... (A. Pushkin)

B) the circumstance (adverb) comes after the main word:
In the north, the wild stands ALONE ... (M. Lermontov)

C) predicate before the subject:
The forest DROPS its crimson dress ... (A. Pushkin)

OXYMORON (OXYMORON) - a combination of words opposite in meaning - in fact, this is a paradoxically sounding antithesis:

And the impossible is possible
The road is long and easy. (A. Blok)

The oxymoron can be found in the titles of the works: "Optimistic Tragedy" by V. Vishnevsky, "Living Corpse" by L. Tolstoy, "Dead Souls" by N. Gogol, "Hot Snow" by Yu. Bondarev. Poets love this figure, since it immediately attracts the attention of readers with its paradox and unusualness:

We love everything - and the heat of cold numbers,
And the gift of divine visions. (A. Blok)
***
Mama!
Your son is perfectly ill!
Mama!
His heart is on fire. (V. Mayakovsky)

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS (SYNTAXIC PARALLELISM) help to combine disparate parts into a single image.

These are: a) the same construction of the following sentences:

I called you, but you didn't look back
I shed tears, but you did not descend. (A. Blok)

B) compositional parallelism, based on the similarity of plot lines or parts of the composition: for example, a description of an autumn thaw is followed by a description of a sad mood;

C) chiasm - when in adjacent sentences the second is built in the reverse sequence of parts:

Here Pushkin's exile began
And Lermontov's exile ended. (A. Akhmatova)
***
Spanish grandee like a thief
Waiting for the night and afraid of the moon. (A. Pushkin)

D) negative parallelism is especially loved in folk song:

Cold winds do not rustle
Do not run quicksands, -
Grief rises again
Like an evil black cloud.

Modern poets also use the following constructions:

I am not lost
But still, give it a go.
I am not frozen
But don't put out the fire.
I'm not blind
But give me your hand.
I am not weak
But have pity on me.
(M. Sopin. "The field of my destiny", Moscow: "Contemporary", 1991)

PARCELLATION (French "ragselle" from Latin "particle") is an expressive figure of speech, when a sentence is divided into parts as independent sentences. With the help of intonation, the most important parts for the author are highlighted. An example from A. Tvardovsky in the second quatrain of the example:
But if you happen somehow
By stupidity, by early youth,
You decide to go on a shameful path
Forgetting about honor, duty and vocation:

Not to support a comrade in trouble.
Turn fun into someone's grief.
In labor, cheat. Lie. To offend the mother.
With an unkind friend to catch up with the glory, -

Then before you are one covenant to you:
Just remember, boy, whose son you are.

Parcel purposes:
- focusing on the main thing in the image;
- highlighting important details;
- emotional strengthening of the impact of the text on the reader;
- creating the effect of surprise;
- contrast enhancement.

An example of parceling from A. Griboyedov:

And everything is Kuznetsky Most, and the eternal French,
Where does fashion come to us, both authors and muses:
Destroyers of pockets and hearts!
When the creator delivers us
From their hats! cheptsov! and studs! and pins!
And bookstores and biscuit shops!

TRANSFER - mismatch of the end of the sentence and the end of the line. Hence, there is an additional pause within the verse. It is interesting that in folk poetry there is almost no transference - it is characteristic, mainly, of the author's speech. Distinguish:

A) line hyphenation:
Tell that from everywhere
Fun blows on me
I don't know myself, that I will
Sing - but only the song matures. (A. Fet)

B) the syllabic transfer is sharper, but also more expressive. In M. Svetlov's "Grenada" the break in the word seems to shout about the sudden death of the hero:

And dead lips whispered: Grena ...
Yes, to the distant region, to the sky-high stretch
My friend left and took the song away.

Daniil Kharms masterfully uses this technique in comic children's poems:
Do you know that u,
Do you know that pa,
Do you know that py,
What does my dad have
There were forty sons?

REPEAT is one of the most common stylistic figures, whose main purpose is to emphasize the most important words or parts in a verse.

A great example of this technique is in a poem by Yakov Kozlovsky:

I contradict myself again
As if I am struggling with myself.
I'm afraid I won't meet you
And I'm afraid to meet you.

Your outstretched hand
I'm afraid to hold in my palms
I'm afraid, in anguish
And let go too quickly.

And again I am from distant wanderings
I'm the only one I strive for
I'm afraid of your sad eyes,
But I'm also afraid of happy eyes.

I'm afraid you don't see everything in me
I'm afraid you can see without difficulty
I'm afraid that you will get married soon,
I'm afraid you will never go out.

What events await me?
I don’t undertake to foresee this.
And I'm afraid to forget about you,
And I'm afraid to remember you.

There are types of repetitions:
a) simple repetition of words or phrases:
Father, father leave the threats
Don't scold your Tamara. (M.Lermontov)

B) anaphora, symloca, epiphora, redif, parallelism, assonance, alliteration (you have already met them),

C) leitmotif - repeat especially important elements plot,

D) refrain - the repetition of a sentence, phrase or verse-verse in songs.
"Goes-buzzes Green Noise / Green Noise, spring noise!" - this refrain sounds in every stanza of N. Nekrasov's poem "Green Noise".

D) pleonasm - excessive repetition of homogeneous words and homogeneous turns (dreamed in a dream, ran at a run, snub nose ...):

E) tautology - the repetition of words identical in meaning, the extreme degree of pleonasm:
The shadow frowned darker ... (F. Tyutchev)

Repetition can become an element of a circular composition when a poem begins and ends with the same words, as, for example, in N. Rubtsov's Star of the Fields.

Rhetorical figures

RHEETORICAL ADDRESSES, as in the verses of Svetlana Petrovskaya:

Wind, are you my friend or foe?
We have been together for a long time!
Raising a black flag in the evenings
The wind drinks the wine of the sunset.

You're lucky with wings
And mine is like the rustling of pages ...
Wind, why should you spite me
Throw joyful birds upward?

There is another figure in the first stanza - RHEETORICAL EXCLAMATION.

Another example of exclamations: look at how unusual - polynomial - V. Brusov expresses his expression:

Do not reach me! do not reach me! I'm tired! tired! tired!
The dry land of the steppes is more hospitable than the ledges of these rocks!

There are stones everywhere, only stones! moss and bare pine!
Granite chest, be soft to me! Sing me a song, silence!

A RHEETORICAL QUESTION does not require an answer at all, it only has an emotional meaning, filled with feelings and edges, as in a poem by Veronika Tushnova:

Do you know,
what is grief
when in a tight noose
on the throat?

In poetry, it is not necessary to fully disclose your thoughts and feelings. Understatement, understatement is also a special stylistic figure.

This is DEFAULT, whose main purpose is to enable the listener or reader to think out (or come up with) their own version of what is happening. In writing, silence is usually indicated by an ellipsis, in oral pronunciation - by a long pause.

A vivid example of silence that awakens deep thoughts and strong feelings is in the poem by I. Bunin:

In the forest, in the mountain, the spring is alive and sonorous,
Old cabbage roll over the spring
With a blackened popular print icon
And in the spring there is a birch bark.

I do not like, about Russia, your timid,
Millennial, slave poverty.

But this cross, but this ladle is white ...
Humble, dear traits!

What reconciles the poet with the "slavish poverty" of Russia? What do the cross and the ladle, carefully left by the spring, say to his heart? Think about it and you, dear readers.

Adjacent to the default is ELLIPSE (ELLIPSE) - omission of the implied word. In contrast to the default, the missing word in the ellipsis is easily reconstructed in this context. In this case, the entire intonation of the line becomes more energetic, elastic. Most often the verb is skipped, giving the text dynamism.

In speech, an ellipsis is a short pause, in writing - a dash (or without it). Examples:

To the horses, brother, and a foot in the stirrup,
The saber out - and in the fight! Here
God gives us another feast. (D. Davydov)

In literary studies, you will come across terms such as ASINDETON (non-union) and POLYSINDETON (multi-union). The first technique enhances the dynamics, as in A. Pushkin's description of the Battle of Poltava:

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.
Drum beat, clicks, grinding ...

The second slows down speech, but at the same time emphasizes the unity of the enumerated:

Oh, summer is red! I would love you
If it weren't for the heat, yes, dust, mosquitoes, and flies. (A. Pushkin)

CHIASM (from the Greek "chiasmos" - cruciform) is a stylistic figure, permutation of words against the background of parallel construction of sentences: in the first half of the chiasm, the words are located in one sequence, and in the second - in reverse. According to the principle of chiasm, the first two lines in A. Blok's poem are built:
I'm waiting for a cold day
I wait for the gray twilight.
Heart froze, ringing:
You said: "I will come ..."

The inversion of the major and minor terms makes the second line a mirror image of the first. And it is unusually beautiful and expressive.

Speech (rhetorical, stylistic) figures are any linguistic means that impart imagery and expressiveness to speech.

Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic.

Semantic figures of speech are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger pieces of text that have special semantic significance.

These include:

comparison is a stylistic figure based on a figurative transformation of a grammatically designed juxtaposition: Crazy years, extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin); Under it is a stream of lighter blue (M. Yu. Lermontov);

ascending gradation - a figure of speech consisting of two or more units, arranged according to the increasing intensity of meaning: I ask you, I ask you very much, I beg you;

descending gradation - a figure that creates a comic effect by violating the principle of growth: a lady who is not afraid of the devil himself or even a mouse (M. Twain);

zeugma is a figure of speech that creates a humorous effect due to grammatical or semantic heterogeneity and incompatibility of words and combinations: He drank tea with his wife, with lemon and with pleasure; It was raining and three students, the first in a coat, the second to the university, the third in a bad mood;

pun is a figure that is a play on words, an intentional combination in one context of two meanings of the same word or the use of similarities in the sound of different words to create a comic effect: There are no colors in her creations, but there are too many of them on her face (P.A. Vyazemsky);

antithesis is a stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts. The lexical basis of this figure is antonymy, the syntactic basis is the parallelism of constructions. Example: Easy to make friends, hard to be separated; The clever will teach, the fool will get bored;

oxymoron - a figure of speech, consisting in attributing to the concept of a sign incompatible with this concept, in a combination of concepts opposite in meaning: a living corpse; young old people; hurry slowly.

Syntactic figures of speech are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. In syntactic figures of speech, the syntactic form plays the main role, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the semantic content.

By the quantitative composition of syntactic constructions, the figures of decrease and figures of addition are distinguished.

Decrease figures include:

ellipsis - a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that one of the components of the statement is not mentioned, is omitted in order to give the text more expressiveness, dynamism: They decided to bake the rabbit foxes, and the rabbit from the oven jumped onto the oven, then onto the bench and into the window from the bench ( Kozlovsky);

aposiopesis - a deliberately incomplete statement: Here he will return and then┘;

prosiopesa - omission of the initial part of the utterance, for example, the use of a patronymic instead of a first name and a patronymic;

I am at peace - the characteristic of colloquial speech, the combination of two sentences into one statement containing a common term: There is a person sitting there waiting for you.

Add shapes include:

repetition - a figure consisting in the repetition of a word or sentence in order to emphasize, reinforce a thought;

anadiplosis (pickup) - a figure of speech, built in such a way that a word or a group of words is repeated at the beginning of the next segment: It will come, as big as a sip, - a sip of water during the heat of summer (Rozhdestvensky);

prolepsa - the simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it: Coffee is hot.

By the arrangement of the components of the syntactic structure, such a figure of speech as inversion is distinguished.

Inversion is a rearrangement of the syntactic components of a sentence, breaking their usual order: He dug up worms, brought fishing rods; There is a cast-iron pattern of your fences (A.S. Pushkin).

Expanding the function of the syntactic construct is at the heart of the rhetorical question.

A rhetorical question is an interrogative sentence in structure, but narrative in terms of the purpose of the statement. Rhetorical questions are widespread in both oratorical and colloquial speech: Do I not know him, this lie that he is all saturated with? (L.N. Tolstoy).

The following speech figures are based on the interaction (assimilation or assimilation) of the structures of syntactic constructions that are jointly encountered in the text:

parallelism is the identical structure of two or more segments of the text: In what year - calculate, in what land - guess┘ (N. A. Nekrasov);

chiasm - "crossing", a variable position of the repeating components of two adjacent text segments: The Mouse is afraid of the Bear - the Bear is afraid of the Mouse; Poetry grammar and grammar of poetry - the title of the article by R. Jacobson;

anaphora - repetition of the initial parts of a sentence or other segments of speech: Fell down┘ And that one was in power! Fell down┘ did not pass and us┘ (N. A. Nekrasov);

epiphora - repetition of the final parts of speech segments: We will not be! And the world at least something. The trace will disappear! And the world at least that (Omar Khayyam).

Paths are transfers of a name, the use of words, their combinations and sentences to name another object in a given speech situation. The main types of trails are:

metaphor - the use of a word in figurative meaning based on a comparison of objects: Vanya is a true loach; This is not a cat, but a bandit (M. A. Bulgakov);

metonymy - transfer of the meaning of a word by contiguity, contiguity: ironed young man; daring eyes;

irony - the deliberate use of words, phrases, sentences and larger chunks of text in a sense completely opposite to the literal one. The ironic coloring of the text is understood by the reader or listener due to the possession of background knowledge (knowledge of the situation, cultural and other realities), as well as with the help of intonation or other ways of emphasizing the opposite meaning of the statement by the author: Split, clever, are you delirious, head? (I.A.Krylov).

You can also find information of interest in the scientific search engine Otvety.Online. Use the search form:

Trope

Lexical means enhance the expressiveness of the language. They are called paths in linguistics. Usually, tropes are used by authors of various works of art when it is required to describe the appearance of heroes or nature.

Thus, the trope is a pictorial technique, which consists in the use of an expression or word in a figurative sense. The purpose of this technique is not only to create a new meaning, but also to enrich, embellish speech, and make it more expressive. It is necessary to distinguish between tropes and figures of speech. Examples of tropes: comparison, hyperbole, metaphor, epithet, personification, and paraphrase.

Figure of speech

Figures of speech are special syntactic constructions that serve to enhance expressiveness. These include antithesis, oxymoron, gradation, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, ellipsis, syntactic parallelism, lexical repetition, epiphora, anaphora, silence, inversion, polyunion, non-union.

Expressiveness of speech - features of its structure, allowing to maintain the interest and attention of the reader (listener).

Antithesis

Antithesis is a turn, consisting in a sharp opposition of characters, concepts, images, with the help of which the effect of sharp contrast arises. Antithesis helps to better contrast phenomena, to portray contradictions. It is a way of expressing the author's view of the described images, phenomena, etc. An example can be cited as follows: "Lay softly, but sleep hard."

Syntactic concurrency

These are the main figures of expressiveness of speech.