Methods of pedagogical research, general characteristics and classification. Classification of pedagogical research methods

Methods of psychological and pedagogical research: their classification and characteristics

Introduction

Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research

Conclusion

References

Introduction

Pedagogy is a developing science. She continues to engage in a more in-depth development of all major scientific problems, as well as the definition of specific scientific forecasts in the development of individual links in the public education system and various phenomena in the field of education and upbringing.

In the practice of the modern school, many practical problems arise before the psychological service. These are the tasks of clarifying the level of a child's readiness for school, identifying especially gifted and lagging behind in development, clarifying the reasons for school maladjustment, the tasks of early warning of illegal tendencies in personality development, the tasks of managing the classroom, taking into account the individual characteristics of students and interpersonal relations between them, the tasks of in-depth career guidance.

Conventionally, all tasks that arise in the interaction of a teacher and a psychologist at school can be divided into psychological, pedagogical and psychological.

Quite conventionally, all typical tasks can be attributed to two classes, based on the main functions of the school - the function of education and the function of upbringing. In real practice, these two functions are closely intertwined.

To conduct pedagogical research, special scientific methods are used, the knowledge of which is necessary for everyone involved in individual and collective scientific research.

Fundamentals of the Study of Research Methods

Methodology in the narrow sense of the word is a teaching about methods, and although we do not reduce it to such an understanding, the teaching about methods plays an extremely important role in methodology. The theory of research methods is designed to reveal their essence, purpose, place in common system scientific research, to give a scientific basis for the choice of methods and their combination, to identify the conditions for their effective use, give design recommendations optimal systems research techniques and procedures, i.e. research methods. Methodological provisions and principles are precisely in the methods that get their effective, instrumental expression.

The widely used concept "method of scientific research" is to a large extent a conditional category that unites both forms of scientific thinking, and general models of research procedures, and methods (techniques) of performing research actions.

It is a mistake to treat methods as an independent category. Methods are derived from the goal, subject, content, and specific conditions of the study. They are largely determined by the nature of the problem, the theoretical level and the content of the hypothesis.

The system of methods, or methodology, of search is a part of the research system that naturally expresses it and allows research activities... Of course, the connections of methods in the research system are complex and diverse, and the methods, being a kind of subsystem of the research complex, serve all of its "nodes". In general, the methods depend on the content of those stages of scientific research that logically precede the stages of selection and use of procedures necessary to test the hypothesis. In turn, all components of the research, including methods, are determined by the content of the studied, although they themselves determine the possibilities of comprehending the essence of a particular content, the possibilities of solving certain scientific problems.

Research methods and techniques are largely determined by the initial concept of the researcher, his general ideas about the essence and structure of the researched. The systematic use of methods requires the choice of a "frame of reference", methods of their classification. Let us consider in this connection the classification of methods of pedagogical research proposed in the literature.

Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research

One of the most recognized and well-known classifications of methods of psychological and pedagogical research is the classification proposed by B.G. Ananyev. He divided all methods into four groups:

organizational;

empirical;

by the method of data processing;

interpretive.

The scientist attributed to the organizational methods:

comparative method as a comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc .;

longitudinal - as repeated examinations of the same persons over a long period of time;

complex - as a study of one object by representatives of different sciences.

To empirical:

observational methods (observation and self-observation);

experiment (laboratory, field, natural, etc.);

psychodiagnostic method;

analysis of processes and products of activity (praxeometric methods);

modeling;

biographical method.

By the method of data processing

methods of mathematical and statistical analysis of data and

methods of qualitative description (Sidorenko E.V., 2000; abstract).

To interpretive

genetic (phylo- and ontogenetic) method;

structural method (classification, typology, etc.).

Ananiev described each of the methods in detail, but with all the thoroughness of his argumentation, as noted by V.N. Druzhinin in his book "Experimental Psychology", there are many unsolved problems: why did modeling turn out to be an empirical method? How practical methods different from field experiment and instrumental observation? Why is the group of interpretive methods separated from the organizational ones?

It is advisable, by analogy with other sciences, to distinguish three classes of methods in educational psychology:

Empirical, in which the externally real interaction of the subject and the object of research is carried out.

Theoretical, when the subject interacts with the mental model of the object (more precisely, the subject of research).

Interpretive-descriptive, in which the subject "externally" interacts with the sign-symbolic representation of the object (graphs, tables, diagrams).

The result of the application of empirical methods is the data that fix the state of the object by the readings of the instruments; reflecting the results of activities, etc.

The result of the application of theoretical methods is represented by knowledge about the subject in the form of natural language, sign-symbolic or spatial-schematic.

Among the main theoretical methods of psychological and pedagogical research, V.V. Druzhinin highlighted:

deductive (axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive), in other words - the ascent from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete. The result is theory, law, etc .;

inductive - a generalization of facts, an ascent from the particular to the general. The result is an inductive hypothesis, regularity, classification, systematization;

modeling - concretization of the method of analogies, "transduction", inference from the particular to the particular, when a simpler and / or accessible object is taken as an analogue of a more complex object. The result is a model of an object, process, state.

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Finally, interpretive-descriptive methods are the "meeting place" of the results of the application of theoretical and experimental methods and the place of their interaction. The data of empirical research, on the one hand, are subjected to primary processing and presentation in accordance with the requirements imposed on the results by the organizing theory, model, and inductive hypothesis; on the other hand, this data is interpreted in terms of competing concepts in terms of hypothesis consistency with the results.

The product of interpretation is fact, empirical dependence and, ultimately, justification or refutation of a hypothesis.

All research methods are proposed to be subdivided into pedagogical and methods of other sciences, into methods that state and transform, empirical and theoretical, qualitative and quantitative, particular and general, meaningful and formal, methods of description, explanation and forecast.

Each of these approaches carries a special meaning, although some of them are also rather arbitrary. Take, for example, the division of methods into pedagogical and methods of other sciences, that is, non-pedagogical. The methods attributed to the first group are, strictly speaking, either general scientific (for example, observation, experiment), or general methods of social sciences (for example, polling, questionnaire, assessment), well mastered by pedagogy. Non-pedagogical methods are methods of psychology, mathematics, cybernetics and other sciences used by pedagogy, but have not yet been so adapted by it and other sciences to acquire the status of pedagogical proper.

The plurality of classifications and classification characteristics of methods should not be considered a disadvantage. This is a reflection of the multidimensionality of methods, their different quality, manifested in various connections and relationships.

Depending on the aspect of consideration and specific tasks the researcher can use different classifications of methods. In the actually used sets of research procedures, there is a movement from description to explanation and forecast, from statement to transformation, from empirical to theoretical methods. When using some classifications, the tendencies of transition from one group of methods to another turn out to be complex and ambiguous. There is, for example, a movement from general methods (analysis of experience) to particular ones (observation, modeling, etc.), and then again to general ones, from qualitative methods to quantitative ones and from them again to qualitative ones.

There is also another classification. All the various methods used in pedagogical research can be divided into general, general scientific and special.

General scientific methods of cognition are methods that are of a general scientific nature and are used in all or in a number of areas. These include experiment, mathematical methods, and a number of others.

General scientific methods used by various sciences are refracted in accordance with the specifics of each given science using these methods. They are closely related to a group of specific scientific methods that are used only in a certain area and do not go beyond it, and are used in each science in various combinations. Of great importance for solving most of the problems of pedagogy is the study of the actually emerging educational process, theoretical comprehension and processing of the creative findings of teachers and other practitioners, that is, generalization and promotion of advanced experience. The most common methods used to study experience include observation, conversation, questionnaires, familiarization with the products of student activities, and educational documentation. Observation is a purposeful perception of a pedagogical phenomenon, in the process of which the researcher receives specific factual material or data characterizing the features of the course of any phenomenon. In order for the attention of the researcher not to be scattered and fixed primarily on the aspects of the observed phenomenon that are of particular interest to him, an observation program is developed in advance, objects of observation are identified, and methods for recording certain moments are provided. Conversation is applied as a stand-alone or as additional method research in order to obtain the necessary clarification about what was not clear enough on observation. The conversation is conducted according to a pre-planned plan with the highlighting of issues requiring clarification. The conversation is conducted in a free form without writing down the answers of the interlocutor, in contrast to interviewing - a variety of the conversation method transferred to pedagogy from sociology. When interviewing, the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions, asked in a certain sequence. In this case, the answers can be recorded openly. When questioning - a method of mass collection of material using questionnaires - answers to questions are written by those to whom the questionnaires are addressed (students, teachers, school workers, in some cases - parents). Questioning is used in order to obtain such data that the researcher cannot obtain in another way (for example, to identify the attitude of the respondents to the studied pedagogical phenomenon). The effectiveness of the conversation, interviewing, questioning largely depends on the content and form of the questions asked, a tactful explanation of their purpose and purpose, in particular, it is recommended that the questions be feasible, unambiguous, concise, clear, objective, do not contain latent form suggestions, would arouse interest and a desire to respond, etc. An important source of obtaining factual data is the study of pedagogical documentation that characterizes the educational process in a particular educational institution(student progress and attendance logs, student records and medical records, student diaries, meeting and meeting minutes, etc.). These documents reflect many objective data that help to establish a number of causal relationships, identify some dependencies (for example, between health and academic performance).

The study of written, graphic and creative works of students is a method that equips the researcher with data that reflect the individuality of each student, showing his attitude to work, the presence of certain abilities.

However, in order to judge the effectiveness of certain pedagogical influences or on the value of methodological findings made by practitioners, and even more so in order to give any recommendations regarding the application of certain innovations in mass practice, the methods considered are not enough, since they mainly reveal only purely external connections between individual aspects of the studied pedagogical phenomenon. For more deep penetration in these connections and dependencies, a pedagogical experiment is used - a specially organized test of a particular method or method of work in order to identify its effectiveness and efficiency. In contrast to the study of a real experience with the use of methods that register only the fact that an already existing experiment always presupposes the creation of a new experience in which the researcher plays an active role. The main condition for the use of a pedagogical experiment in the Soviet school is to conduct it without disrupting the normal course of the educational process, when there is sufficient reason to believe that the tested innovation can contribute to an increase in the effectiveness of teaching and upbringing, or at least will not cause undesirable consequences... Such an experiment is called a natural experiment. If an experiment is carried out in order to verify a particular issue or if in order to obtain the necessary data it is necessary to ensure especially careful observation of individual students (sometimes with the use of special equipment), it is allowed to artificially isolate one or several students and place them in special conditions specially created by the researcher. ... In this case, a laboratory experiment is used, which is rarely used in pedagogical research.

A scientifically substantiated assumption about the possible effectiveness of one or another experimentally verified innovation is called a scientific hypothesis.

An essential part of the experiment is observation, carried out according to a specially developed program, as well as the collection of certain data, for which tests, questionnaires, and conversation are used. Recently, they are increasingly being used for these purposes and technical means: sound recording, filming, photographing at certain moments, observation with a hidden camera of television. The use of video tape recorders is promising, allowing you to record the observed phenomena, and then play them back for analysis.

Most an important milestone in work using these methods is the analysis and scientific interpretation of the collected data, the ability of the researcher to move from specific facts to theoretical generalizations.

In theoretical analysis, the researcher thinks about the causal relationship between the applied methods or methods of influence and the results obtained, and also looks for reasons explaining the appearance of some unexpected unexpected results, determines the conditions under which this or that phenomenon occurred, seeks to separate the accidental from the necessary, displays certain pedagogical patterns.

Theoretical methods can also be applied in the analysis of data collected from various scientific and pedagogical sources, in the understanding of the studied advanced experience.

In pedagogical research, mathematical methods are also used that help not only to identify qualitative changes, but also to establish quantitative relationships between pedagogical phenomena.

The most common mathematical methods used in pedagogy are as follows.

Registration is a method of identifying the presence of a certain quality in each member of the group and a general calculation of the number of those who have given quality present or absent (for example, the number of successful and unsuccessful people who attended classes without a pass and allowed absences, etc.).

Ranking - (or the method of ranking assessment) assumes the arrangement of the collected data in a certain sequence, usually in decreasing or increasing order of any indicators and, accordingly, determining the place in this row of each of the subjects (for example, compiling a list of students depending on the number of students admitted to control work errors, the number of missed classes, etc.).

Scaling as a quantitative research method makes it possible to introduce digital indicators into the assessment of certain aspects of pedagogical phenomena. For this purpose, the subjects are asked questions, answering which they must indicate the degree or form of assessment, selected from among these assessments, numbered in a certain order (for example, a question about playing sports with a choice of answers: a) I am fond of, b) I exercise regularly, c) I do it irregularly, d) I don’t do any kind of sports).

Correlation of the obtained results with the norm (for the given indicators) involves the determination of deviations from the norm and correlating these deviations with the permissible intervals (for example, in programmed teaching, 85-90% of correct answers are often considered the norm; if there are fewer correct answers, this means that the program is too difficult , if it is more, it means that it is too light).

The definition of the average values ​​of the indicators obtained is also applied - the arithmetic mean (for example, the average number of errors for the test work identified in two grades), the median, defined as an indicator of the middle of the row (for example, if there are fifteen students in the group, this will be an assessment of the results of the eighth student in the list , in which all students are ranked according to their grade).

In the analysis and mathematical processing of mass material, statistical methods are used, which include calculating average values, as well as calculating the degrees of dispersion around these values ​​- variance, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, etc.

Characterization of empirical research

The methods of empirical research should include: study of the literature of documents and results of activities, observation, questioning, assessment (the method of experts or competent judges), testing. To more general methods this level includes generalization of pedagogical experience, experimental pedagogical work, experiment. They are essentially complex techniques that include specific methods that are related in a certain way.

Study of literature, documents and results of activities. Literature study serves as a method of acquaintance with facts, history and current state problems, the way of creating initial ideas, the initial concept of the subject, the detection of "white spots" and ambiguities in the development of the question.

The study of literature and documentary materials continues throughout the study. But the accumulated facts stimulate in a new way to think over and evaluate the content of the studied sources, stimulate interest in issues that have not previously received sufficient attention. Thorough documentary base of the research - important condition its objectivity and depth

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Observation. A very widespread method used both independently and as an integral part of more complex methods. Observation consists in the direct perception of phenomena with the help of the senses or their indirect Perception through descriptions by other people who directly observed.

Observation is based on perception as a mental process, but this does not exhaust observation as a research method. Observation can be aimed at studying delayed learning outcomes, at studying changes in an object over a period of time. In this case, the results of perception of phenomena at different times are compared, analyzed, compared, and only after that the results of observation are determined. When organizing observation, its objects must be identified in advance, goals set, and an observation plan drawn up. The object of observation is most often the very process of teacher and student activity, the course and results of which are judged by words, actions, deeds, and the results of assignments. The purpose of observation determines the predominant focus on certain aspects of activity, on certain connections and relationships (the level and dynamics of interest in the subject, ways of mutual assistance of students in collective work, the ratio of informative and developmental learning functions, etc.). Planning helps to highlight the sequence of observation, the order and way of recording its results. The types of observations can be distinguished according to various characteristics. On the basis of a temporary organization. Distinguish between continuous and discrete observation, in terms of volume - broad and highly specialized, aimed at identifying individual aspects of the phenomenon or individual objects (monographic observation of individual students, for example). Survey. This method is used in two main forms: in the form of an oral survey of an interview and in the form of a written survey - a questionnaire. Each of these forms has its own strengths and weak sides.

The survey reflects subjective opinions and assessments. Often the respondents guess what is required of them, and willingly or unwillingly tune in to the required answer. The survey method should be considered as a means of collecting primary material that is subject to rechecking by other methods.

The survey is always built on the basis of expectations based on a certain understanding of the nature and structure of the studied phenomena, as well as ideas about the attitudes and assessments of the respondents. First of all, the task arises to reveal the objective content in subjective and often non-coinciding answers, to identify the leading objective tendencies and causes in them. Inconsistencies in estimates. Then the problem of comparing the expected and the received arises and is solved, which can serve as a basis for correcting or changing the initial ideas about the subject.

Assessment (method of competent judges). In essence, this is a combination of indirect observation and questioning, associated with the involvement of the most competent people in the assessment of the studied phenomena, whose opinions, complementing and cross-checking each other, allow an objective assessment of the studied. This method is very economical. Its use requires a number of conditions. First of all, this is a careful selection of experts - people who know well the area being assessed, the object under study and are capable of an objective and unbiased assessment.

Study and generalization of pedagogical experience. Scientific study and generalization of pedagogical experience serves various research purposes; identifying the existing level of functioning of the pedagogical process, bottlenecks and conflicts arising in practice, studying the effectiveness and availability of scientific recommendations, identifying the Elements of a new, rational, emerging in the everyday creative search of advanced teachers. In its last function, the method of generalization of pedagogical experience appears in its most widespread form as a method of generalization of advanced pedagogical experience. Thus, the object of study can be mass experience (to identify leading trends), negative experience (to identify characteristic deficiencies and errors), but special meaning has the study of advanced experience, in the process of which valuable grains of the new found in mass practice are revealed, generalized, and become the property of science and practice: original techniques and their combinations, interesting methodological systems (techniques).

Experienced pedagogical work. If we are talking about the generalization of experience, then it is clear that scientific research directly follows from practice, follows it, contributing to the crystallization and growth of the new born in it. But such a relationship between science and practice is not the only possible one today. In many cases, science is obliged to outstrip practice, even advanced, without breaking away, however, from its requests and requirements.

The method of making deliberate changes in the educational and educational process, designed to obtain an educational and educational effect, with their subsequent verification and evaluation, is experimental work.

Didactic experiment. An experiment in science is called a change or reproduction of a phenomenon in order to study it in the most favorable conditions. A characteristic feature of the experiment is the planned human intervention in the phenomenon under study, the possibility of repeated reproduction of the studied phenomena under varying conditions. This method makes it possible to decompose holistic pedagogical phenomena into their constituent elements... By changing (varying) the conditions in which these elements function, the experimenter is able to trace the development of individual sides and connections, more or less accurately record the results. The experiment serves to test the hypothesis, clarify individual conclusions of the theory (empirically verified consequences), establish and clarify the facts

A real experiment is preceded by a mental one. Losing mentally different options possible experiments, the researcher selects options that are subject to verification in a real experiment, and also obtains assumed, hypothetical results, with which the results obtained in the course of a real experiment are compared.

Characteristics of theoretical studies

Due to the generalizing nature of theoretical research, all of its methods have a wide field of application, are quite general in nature. These are methods of theoretical analysis and synthesis, abstraction and idealization, modeling and concretization of theoretical knowledge. Let's take a look at these methods.

Theoretical analysis and synthesis. At the theoretical level of research, many forms of logical thinking are very widely used, including analysis and synthesis, especially analysis, which consists in the decomposition of the studied into units, which makes it possible to reveal the internal structure of an object. But the leading role in comparison with analysis in theoretical research is played by synthesis. On the basis of synthesis, the object is recreated as a subordinated system of connections and interactions, with the identification of the most essential of them.

Through analysis and synthesis, it is only possible to isolate the objective content, objective tendencies in the subjective form of activity of students and teachers, to "grasp" inconsistencies, to "catch" real contradictions in development. Pedagogical process, To "see" such forms and stages of the process that are projected, but do not really exist yet.

Abstraction - concretization and idealization. The processes of abstraction and concretization are closely connected with analysis and synthesis.

Abstraction (abstraction) is usually understood as the process of mental distraction of some property or feature of an object from the object itself, from its other properties. This is done in order to study the subject deeper, to isolate it from other objects and from other properties, signs. Abstraction is especially valuable for those sciences in which experiment is impossible, the use of such means of cognition as a microscope, chemical reagents, etc.

There are two types of abstraction: generalizing and isolating. The first type of abstraction is formed by highlighting common identical features in many objects. Isolating abstraction does not imply the presence of many objects, it can be accomplished with only one object. Here, in an analytical way, we isolate the property we need, fixing our attention on it. For example, a teacher distinguishes one of the variety of features of the educational process - accessibility teaching material- and considers it independently, defining what is accessibility, what is it due to, how it is achieved, what is its role in the assimilation of the material.

Modeling. Comparison is widely used in theoretical research, and especially analogy is a specific type of comparison that allows one to establish the similarity of phenomena.

The analogy provides a basis for conclusions about the equivalence in certain respects of one object to another. Then the object, simpler in structure and accessible to study, becomes a model of a more complex object called the prototype (original). The possibility of transferring information by analogy from model to prototype opens up. This is the essence of one of the specific methods of the theoretical level - the modeling method. In this case, a complete liberation of the thinking subject from the empirical premises of the conclusion is possible, when the inferences themselves from model to prototype take the form of mathematical correspondences (isomorphism, isofunctionalism homomorphism), and thinking begins to operate not with real, but mental models, which are then embodied in the form of schematic sign models (graphs , schemes, formulas, etc.).

Model is an auxiliary object chosen or transformed by a person for cognitive purposes, giving new information about the main object. In didactics, attempts have been made to create at the qualitative level a model of the educational process as a whole. The model representation of individual aspects or structures of learning is already practiced quite widely.

Modeling in theoretical research also serves the task of constructing something new that does not yet exist in practice. Researcher examining specific traits real processes and their tendencies, searches for their new combinations on the basis of the key idea, makes their mental arrangement, that is, simulates the required state of the system under study. A thought experiment can be considered a special type of modeling based on idealization. In such an experiment, a person, on the basis of theoretical knowledge about the objective world and empirical data, creates ideal objects, correlates them in a certain dynamic model, mentally imitating the movement and those situations that could take place in real experimentation.

Concretization of theoretical knowledge. The higher the degree of abstraction, the distance from the empirical basis, the more responsible and complex the procedures required to. The results of theoretical search have acquired the form of knowledge, ready for use in science and practice.

First of all, the task arises of “inscribing the acquired knowledge into the system of existing theoretical concepts. This knowledge can deepen, develop, clarify existing theories, find out their insufficiency and even "blow up" them.

Concretization is a logical form a, which is the opposite of abstraction. Concretization is the thought process of recreating an object from previously isolated abstractions. When the concepts are concretized, they are enriched with new features.

Concretization, aimed at reproducing the development of an object as an integral system, becomes a special research method. The unity of diversity, the combination of many properties, qualities of an object is called concrete here; abstract, on the contrary, one-sided, isolated from other moments of its property.

The method of concretizing theoretical knowledge, which includes many logical methods and operations used at all stages of research, thus allows us to translate abstract knowledge into mental-concrete and concrete-effective knowledge, gives scientific results an outlet for practice.

Ways of implementing research results

The most important thing in a completed pedagogical research is the implementation of its results into practice. The implementation of the results is understood as a whole complex of measures implemented in a certain sequence, including informing the pedagogical community about the findings or patterns revealed that give rise to any changes in practice (through the pedagogical press, in oral presentations, etc.); creation of new teaching and methodological aids based on the data obtained from experimental research (for example, when restructuring training in primary school); development of methodological instructions and recommendations, etc. Moreover, if the effectiveness and efficiency of any pedagogical findings of practicing teachers is confirmed and they receive scientific understanding, interpretation and justification, the propaganda of their experience is organized, the possibility of transferring it to other conditions is shown (for example, this is how the propaganda of the experience of Lipetsk teachers who improved the methodology organization of the lesson).

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The key to the successful implementation and dissemination of the results of pedagogical research and the studied and scientifically grounded advanced experience is the creative community of teachers and workers in pedagogical science, the interest of teachers in reading scientific and pedagogical and methodological literature, the desire to personally, directly participate in experimental and experimental work, especially at the stage when a massive test of new educational and methodological materials is organized, in which new ideas are laid and the results of scientific and pedagogical research are reflected.

Knowledge of the basic methods of conducting pedagogical research is necessary for every creatively working teacher, who must know and be able to apply these methods, both for studying the experience of other teachers, and for organizing testing on a scientific basis of his own pedagogical findings and discoveries used in other conditions.

In the most general view the system of actions for the study of a particular pedagogical problem can be summarized as follows:

identifying the problem, determining the origins of its occurrence, understanding its essence and manifestation in the practice of the school;

assessment of the degree of its development in pedagogical science, the study of theoretical concepts and provisions related to the field of research;

the formulation of a specific research problem, the tasks that the researcher sets for himself, research hypotheses;

development of their proposals for solving this problem; experimental and experimental verification of their effectiveness and efficiency;

analysis of data indicating the degree of effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed innovations;

conclusions about the significance of the results of a specific research for the development of the corresponding field of pedagogical science.

Conclusion

So, we examined the main methods of pedagogical research. How, then, from these individual methods, can one put together a well-founded research methodology, using which one can solve the assigned tasks?

First of all, it is necessary to proceed from the position that the essence of the method is determined not by a set of techniques, but by their general focus, the logic of the movement of the seeking thought following the objective movement of the subject, the general concept of research. A method is, first of all, a scheme, a model of research actions and techniques, and only then - a system of actually carried out actions and techniques that serve to prove and test a hypothesis in terms of a certain pedagogical concept.

The essence of the methodology is that it is a purposeful system of methods that provides a fairly complete and reliable solution to the problem. One or another set of methods combined into a methodology always expresses the planned methods of detecting inconsistencies, gaps in scientific knowledge, and then serves as a means of eliminating gaps, resolving the identified contradictions.

Naturally, the choice of methods is largely determined by the level at which the work is carried out (empirical or theoretical) by the nature of the research (methodological, theoretical applied) and the content of its final and intermediate tasks.

You can point out a number of typical mistakes when choosing methods:

a stereotyped approach to the choice of a method, its stencil use without taking into account specific tasks and research conditions; universalization of certain methods or techniques, for example, questionnaire survey and sociometry;

ignoring or insufficient use of theoretical methods, especially idealization, the ascent from the abstract to the concrete;

the inability of individual methods to compose a holistic methodology that optimally provides a solution to the problems of scientific research.

Any method itself is a semi-finished product, a workpiece that needs to be modified, concretized in relation to the tasks, subject, and specifically to the conditions of search work.

Finally, you need to think about such a combination of research methods that they successfully complement each other, revealing the subject of research more fully and deeper, so that it is possible to double-check the results obtained by one method using another. For example, it is useful to clarify, deepen, verify the results of preliminary observations and conversations with students by analyzing the results of tests or the behavior of students in specially created situations.

The foregoing allows us to formulate some criteria for the correct choice of the research method:

2. Compliance with modern principles of scientific research.

H. Scientific perspective, that is, a reasonable assumption that the chosen method will give new and reliable results.

4. Compliance with the logical structure (stage) of the study.

5, Perhaps a more complete focus on the comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality of trainees, because the research method in many cases becomes a method of education and upbringing, that is, "an instrument of touching the personality."

6. Harmonious relationship with other methods in a single methodological system.

All the constituent elements of the methodology and the methodology as a whole must be checked for compliance with the research objectives, sufficient evidence, full compliance with the principles of pedagogical research.

References

1. Zagvyazinsky V.P. Methodology and technique of didactic research. - M .: Pedagogika, 1982 .-- 147 p.

2. Pedagogy: textbook. manual for ped students. in-tov / P 24 Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. - Moscow: Education, 1983 .-- 608 p.

Internet resources

3.student.psi911.com/lektor/pedpsi_035.htm

4. www.ido.edu.ru/psychology/pedagogical_psychology/2.html

5. (http://www.voppsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1998/985/985126.htm; see the article by EM Borisova "Fundamentals of Psychodiagnostics").

METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC AND PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH

Research method – the way of cognition and comprehension of the most general and widespread laws of reality, objective reality.

In order for the researcher to solve the set task, a set of methods, means and techniques of scientific cognition, i.e. methods of scientific cognition, is required.

To solve specific problems of studying the characteristics of the psyche and human behavior in the pedagogical process, it is used a variety of research methods. Methods to be chosen adequately the essence of the subject being studied and the product to be obtained; adequate to the task. That is, it is necessary to coordinate the methods with the nature of the phenomenon under study.

Research methods are grouped according to various criteria: according to the level of penetration into the essence, a group is distinguished methods of empirical research based on experience, practice, experiment, and methods of theoretical research, associated with abstraction from sensory reality, building models, penetrating into the essence of what is being studied (history, theory).

The main research methods are observation and experiment. They can be considered general scientific methods. There are many others specific to the social sciences: method of conversation, method of studying processes and products of activity, method of questioning, method of testing, etc.

How are the methods or means of concretization and implementation of the research method used? specific techniques psychological research. For example, if testing is an research method, then specific tests act as methods: the Cattel, Eysenck questionnaire, etc.

Empirical methods:

1) observation is one of the most common and also the most available method studying pedagogical practice. scientific observation - a specially organized perception of the object under study in natural conditions: a) tasks are determined, objects are identified, observation schemes are drawn up; b) the results must be recorded; c) the received data is processed.

To increase efficiency, observation should be long-term, systematic, versatile, objective and massive. There are also disadvantages: obs. Does not reveal the inner side of ped.phenomena; it is impossible to ensure complete objectivity of information. Therefore obs. It is most often used at the early stages of research in combination with other methods.

2) survey methods:

Conversation - an independent or additional research method used in order to obtain necessary information or clarification of what was not clear enough on observation. The conversation is conducted according to a pre-planned plan with the highlighting of issues requiring clarification. The conversation is conducted in a free form without writing down the answers of the interlocutor. A kind of conversation is interviewing, introduced into pedagogy from sociology.

Questionnaire - method of mass collection of material using a questionnaire. Those to whom the questionnaires are addressed give written answers to questions.

Interviewing the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions, asked in a certain sequence. During the interview, the answers are recorded openly.

The effectiveness of the conversation, interviewing and questioning largely depends on the content and structure of the questions asked. The conversation plan, interview and questionnaire is a list of questions (questionnaire). Steps in compiling a questionnaire:

Determination of the nature of the information that needs to be obtained;

Drawing up an approximate series of questions to be asked;

Preparation of the first outline of the questionnaire;

Its preliminary check by trial research;

Correction and final editing of the questionnaire.

3) study of the products of students' activities : written, graphic, creative and test works, drawings, drawings, details, notebooks for individual disciplines, etc. These works can provide the necessary information about the personality of the student, about his attitude to work and about the achieved level of skills and abilities in a particular area.

4) Studying school records(personal files of students, medical records, class journals, student diaries, minutes of meetings, sessions) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.

5 ) ped experiment method – the main research method in pedagogy and psychology (as well as observation; general scientific). specially organized testing of one method or another, work acceptance to identify its pedagogical effectiveness. Pedagogical experiment - research activity with the aim of studying cause-and-effect relationships in pedagogical phenomena, which involves the experimental modeling of a pedagogical phenomenon and the conditions for its course; active influence of the researcher on the pedagogical phenomenon; measurement of response, results of pedagogical influence and interaction; repeated reproducibility of pedagogical phenomena and processes.

The following stages of the experiment are distinguished:

theoretical(statement of the problem, definition of the goal, object and subject of research, its tasks and hypotheses);

methodical(development of a research methodology and its plan, program, methods for processing the results obtained);

the experiment itself- conducting a series of experiments (creating experimental situations, observing, managing the experience and measuring the reactions of the subjects);

analytical- quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the obtained facts, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.

A distinction is made between a natural experiment (under the conditions of a normal educational process) and a laboratory experiment - the creation of artificial conditions for testing, for example, a particular teaching method, when individual students are isolated from the rest. Natural experiment is most often used. It can be long-term or short-term.

A pedagogical experiment can be ascertaining, establishing only the real state of affairs in the process, or transforming (developing), when its purposeful organization is carried out to determine the conditions (methods, forms and content of education) for the development of the personality of a student or children's collective. A transformative experiment requires control groups to be compared. The difficulties of the experimental method lie in the fact that it is necessary to have excellent command of the technique of its implementation, special delicacy, tact, scrupulousness on the part of the researcher, and the ability to establish contact with the subject are needed.

Theoretical methods:

1) modeling – reproduction of the characteristics of a certain object on another object specially created for their study. The second of the objects is called the model of the first (the smallest in size, reproducing the original).

There are also mental models that are called idealized.

2) idealized model - any theoretical concept that has developed as a result of observations and experiments.

3) Literature study makes it possible to find out which aspects and problems have already been sufficiently well studied, on which scientific discussions are underway, what is outdated, and which issues have not yet been resolved:

- compilation of bibliography- a list of sources selected for work in connection with the problem under study;

- referencing - concise transcription of the main content of one or more works on a general topic;

- note-taking- maintaining more detailed records, the basis of which is the selection of the main ideas and provisions of the work;

- ;annotation- a short record of the general content of the book or article;

- citation- a verbatim record of expressions, factual or numerical data contained in a literary source.

Mathematical Methods in pedagogy, they are used to process data obtained by survey and experiment methods, as well as to establish quantitative relationships between the phenomena under study:

- registration- a method of identifying the presence of a certain quality in each member of the group and a general calculation of the number of those who have this quality or not (for example, the number of actively working in the class and passive).

- Ranging(or the ranking method) requires placing the collected data in a certain sequence (usually in decreasing or increasing order of some indicators) and, accordingly, determining the place in this row for each of the studied (for example, compiling a list of the most preferred classmates).

- Scaling- the introduction of digital indicators in the assessment of certain aspects of pedagogical phenomena. For this purpose, the subjects are asked questions, answering which they must choose one of the indicated ratings. For example, in the question about doing any activity in your free time, you need to choose one of the evaluative answers: I get carried away, I do it regularly, I do it irregularly, I do nothing.

Statistical Methods are used in the processing of mass material - determining the average values ​​of the obtained indicators: the arithmetic mean (for example, determining the number of errors in the verification work of the control and experimental groups)

Research method- a way of cognizing the studied reality, which allows solving problems and achieving the goal of search activity.

Theoretical: analysis, content analysis, retrospective analysis, abstraction, analogy, systematization, concretization, modeling

Empirical: survey methods (questioning, conversation, interviewing), experiment, observation, sociometric methods, trainings

Traditional pedagogical methods

We shall call traditional methods the methods inherited by modern pedagogy from the researchers who stood at the origins of pedagogical science.

Observation- the most accessible and widespread method of studying pedagogical practice.

Disadvantages of observation: it does not reveal the inner sides of pedagogical phenomena; when using this method, it is impossible to ensure complete objectivity of information.

Learning from experience is another long-used method of pedagogical research. In a broad sense, it means organized cognitive activity aimed at establishing historical ties of upbringing, isolating the general, stable in educational systems.

With the help of this method, ways of solving specific problems are analyzed, balanced conclusions are drawn about the appropriateness of their application in new conditions. Therefore, this method is often called historical.

Studying the products of student creativity- homework and classwork on all academic subjects, essays, abstracts, reports - will tell an experienced researcher a lot.

Conversations- the traditional method of pedagogical research. In conversations, dialogues, discussions, people's attitudes, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions are revealed. A kind of conversation, its new modification - interviewing, transferred to pedagogy from sociology. Interviewing usually involves

public discussion; the researcher adheres to previously prepared questions, puts them in a certain sequence.

Pedagogical experiment is a scientifically formulated experience of transforming the pedagogical process in precisely taken into account conditions. Unlike methods that only register what already exists, the experiment in pedagogy has a constructive character. Experimentally, for example, new techniques, methods, forms, and systems of teaching and educational activity are paving the way for practice.

A teaching experiment can involve a group of students, a class, a school, or multiple schools. The decisive role in the experiment belongs to scientific hypothesis. The study of a hypothesis is a form of transition from observing phenomena to revealing the laws of their development. Reliability of experimental findings

directly depends on compliance with the experimental conditions.

Depending on the goal pursued by the experiment, there are:

1) ascertaining experiment, in which the existing pedagogical phenomena are studied;

2) verification, clarifying experiment, when the hypothesis created in the process of understanding the problem is tested;

3) creative, transformative, formative experiment, in the process of which new pedagogical phenomena are constructed.

According to the venue, natural and laboratory pedagogical experiments are distinguished.

Natural is a scientifically organized experience of testing the hypothesis without disrupting the educational process. Objects of natural experiment

most often there are plans and programs, textbooks and tutorials, techniques and methods of teaching and upbringing, forms of the educational process.

Laboratory it is used when it is necessary to check any particular issue or if, in order to obtain the necessary data, it is necessary to ensure especially careful observation of the subject, while the experiment is transferred to special research conditions.

Pedagogical testing

Testing- this is a purposeful, the same examination for all subjects, carried out in strictly controlled conditions, which allows to objectively measure the studied characteristics of the pedagogical process. Testing differs from other methods of examination in accuracy, simplicity, availability,

the possibility of automation. If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we must first of all point out the use of performance tests. Widely used tests of elementary skills, such as reading, writing, the simplest arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of the trained ™ - identifying the degree of assimilation of knowledge, skills in all academic disciplines.

Final test contains a large number of questions and is proposed after studying a large section of the curriculum. There are two types of tests: speed and power. On speed tests, the subject usually does not have enough time to answer all the questions; for power tests, everyone has such an opportunity.

Methods for Studying Collective Phenomena

The processes of upbringing, education, training are of a collective (group) nature. The most frequently used methods of studying them are mass polls of participants in these processes, carried out according to a specific plan. These questions can be oral (interview) or written (questionnaire). Scaling and sociometric methods, comparative studies are also widely used.

Questionnaire- a method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires, called questionnaires. Questioning is based on the assumption that a person is frankly answering the questions asked to him. The questionnaire attracted the teachers by the possibility of quick mass polls, de-

methodology and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material.

Various types of questionnaires are now widely used in pedagogical research: open, requiring an independent answer, and closed, in which you need to choose one of the ready-made answers; registered, requiring the names of the test subject, and anonymous, doing without it; full and stripped down; propaedeutic and control etc. Widely used group differentiation study method(sociometric method), which allows you to analyze intracollective relationships. The method allows you to make "slices" that characterize the various stages of the formation of relations, types of authority, the state of the asset. Perhaps its main advantage is the ability to present the obtained data in a visual form using the so-called matrices and sociograms, as well as quantitative processing of the results.

Quantitative methods in pedagogy

Quality is a set of properties that indicate what an object is, what it is. Quantity determines the size, is identified with measure, number. It is necessary to distinguish between two main directions in the use of quantitative methods in pedagogy: the first - for processing the results of observations and experiments, the second - for "modeling, diagnostics, forecasting, computerization

educational process. The methods of the first group are well known and widely used.

Statistical method contains the following specific techniques.

registration- identifying a certain quality in phenomena of a given class and counting the quantity by the presence or absence of this quality.

Ranging- the location of the collected data in a certain sequence (decrease or increase of the recorded indicators), determining the place in this row of objects under study (for example, compiling a list of students depending on the number of missed classes, etc.).

Scaling- assignment of points or other numerical indicators to the studied characteristics. This achieves greater certainty.

research becomes modeling. A scientific model is a mentally presented or materially realized system that adequately reflects the subject of research and is able to replace it in such a way that the study of the model allows one to obtain new information about this object. Modeling is

method of creating and researching models. The main advantage of modeling is the integrity of the presentation of information. Modeling is successfully used to solve the following problems:

Optimization of the structure of the educational process;

Improving the planning of the educational process;

Management of cognitive activity, educational process;

Diagnostics, forecasting, training design.

General methodological and philosophical principles of scientific knowledge affect the methods of specific scientific knowledge, therefore, the scientific method should be selected according to the area in which the scientific search takes place. That is, depending on the degree of complexity of the study, the methods of its solution, types of experiment, techniques and means also change.

Classification is the distribution of objects, phenomena and concepts by classes, groups, departments, categories, depending on common characteristics.

There are various classifications of methods of pedagogical research.

Scientific research methods can be divided into general logical and scientific, which in turn are differentiated into empirical and theoretical.

General logical methods include:

Analysis(Greek - decomposition) is a research method, the essence of which is that the subject of study is mentally or practically divided into its constituent elements (parts of an object or its signs, properties, relationships, and each of the parts is investigated separately).

Synthesis(Greek - connection) - this research method allows you to connect the elements (parts) of an object, dismembered in the process of analysis, to establish connections between them and to know the objects of research as a whole.

When studying a specific object of research, as a rule, analysis and synthesis are used simultaneously, since they are interrelated.

Induction(Latin - guidance) is a method of cognition in which general principles and laws are derived from particular factors and phenomena. This is inference from facts to some hypothesis (general statement). In such a conclusion, a general conclusion about the characteristics of a set of elements is made on the basis of a study of some of the elements of this set. At the same time, the investigated facts are selected according to a pre-developed plan.

Distinguish between full induction and incomplete:

Full induction- generalization refers to a finite-observable field of facts and the inference made at the same time exhaustively examines the phenomenon under study.

Incomplete induction- generalization refers to an infinite or finite-boundless field of facts, and the conclusion made at the same time allows us to draw up only an approximate, preliminary opinion about the object under study. This opinion may be misleading. When using the incomplete induction method, errors may occur, the reasons for which are:

Haste to generalize;

Generalization without sufficient reason on secondary or random grounds;

Substitution of a causal connection with the usual sequence in time;

Unjustified extension of the obtained conclusion beyond the specific conditions in which it was received, i.e. substitution of the conditional by the unconditional.

Deduction(Latin - deduction) is a method of cognition, in which particular provisions are derived from general ones. By deduction, the conclusion about separate element a certain set is done on the basis of knowledge about the characteristics of the whole set, i.e. it is a method of moving from general ideas to particular ones.

Despite their opposite, induction and deduction in the process of scientific knowledge are always used together, representing different sides of a single dialectical method of cognition - from inductive generalization to deductive inference, to verification of inference and deeper generalization - and so on ad infinitum.

Analogy(Greek - correspondence, similarity) is a method of scientific knowledge, with the help of which knowledge about some objects or phenomena is achieved on the basis of their similarity with others. Inference by analogy is when knowledge about an object is transferred to another less studied object, but similar to the first one in essential properties and qualities. Such inferences are one of the main sources of scientific hypotheses. Due to its visibility, the method of analogies has become widespread in science.

The analogy method is the basis of another method of scientific knowledge - modeling.

Modeling(lat. - measure, sample) is a method of scientific cognition, which consists in replacing the studied object with its specially created analogue or model, by which the characteristics of the original are determined or specified. In this case, the model must contain the essential features of a real object.

Modeling is one of the main categories of cognition; almost any method of scientific research is based on its idea, both theoretical, in which various abstract (ideal) models are used, and experimental, using subject (material) models. Abstract models include mental, logical, imaginary (logical-mathematical) and mathematical models. The latter are described by equations identical with the original. The material includes physical, material or acting models. They retain the physical nature of the original.

The modeling method relies on meaningful knowledge of the research object and provides for the solution of such important issues as the relationship between the model and the research object, the degree of similarity of the model with the original, the legality of transferring the information obtained during the study of the model to the object.

Several types of modeling are known to modern science:

1) subject modeling, in which the research is conducted on a model that reproduces certain geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics of the original object;

2) sign modeling, in which schemes, drawings, formulas act as models. The most important type such modeling is mathematical modeling, produced by means of mathematics and logic;

3) mental modeling, in which, instead of symbolic models, mental-visual representations of these signs and operations with them are used.

Astragation- this is a mental distraction from certain aspects, properties or connections of the object of knowledge. Scientific abstraction is a distraction in the process of cognition from the particular and insignificant aspects of the phenomenon under consideration in order to focus on its general, basic, essential features. By highlighting the essential, scientific abstraction contributes to the deepening of knowledge. At the same time, it is necessary to know the boundaries of abstraction, i.e. abstraction in research must be theoretically justified.

For the empirical level of research, the following methods are characteristic:

- observation- perception of objective reality, giving knowledge about external parties, properties and relationships of the studied objects;

- description- consolidation and transmission of the results of observation with the help of certain symbolic means;

- dimension- comparison of objects by any properties or sides;

- comparison- simultaneous relational study of the process of properties or attributes common to two or more objects;

- experiment- observation of specially created and controlled conditions.

Observation- Purposeful study of subjects, based mainly on the data of the senses (sensation, perception, representation). In the course of observation, we gain knowledge not only about the external aspects of the object of knowledge, but - as an ultimate goal - about its essential properties and relationships.

Observation can be direct and mediated by various devices and technical devices (microscope, telescope, photo and film camera, etc.). With the development of science, observation becomes more complex and indirect.

Basic requirements for scientific observation:

unambiguous design; the presence of a system of methods and techniques;

objectivity, i.e. the possibility of control by either repeated observation or by using other methods (for example, experiment). Observation is usually included as part of an experimental procedure. An important point observation is the interpretation of its results, interpretation of instrument readings, a curve on an oscilloscope, on an electrocardiogram, etc.

The cognitive result of observation is the description - fixation by means of natural and artificial language of the initial information about the object under study: diagrams, graphs, diagrams, tables, figures, etc. Observation is closely related to measurement, which is the process of finding the ratio of a given quantity to another homogeneous quantity, taken as a unit of measurement. The measurement result is expressed as a number.

Experiment- active and purposeful intervention in the course of the studied process, the corresponding change in the object or its reproduction in specially created and controlled conditions.

In an experiment, an object is either artificially reproduced or placed in a certain way given conditions that meet the objectives of the study. In the course of the experiment, the object under study is isolated from the influence of collateral circumstances and is presented in "pure form". In this case, the specific conditions of the experiment are not only specified, but also controlled, modernized, and reproduced many times.

The main features of the experiment:

a) a more active (than during observation) attitude to the object, up to its change and transformation, b) multiple reproducibility of the object under study at the request of the researcher, c) the possibility of detecting such properties of phenomena that are not observed in natural conditions; d) the possibility of considering the phenomenon in its "pure form" by isolating it from complicating and masking its course of circumstances or by changing, varying the conditions of the experiment, e) the ability to control the "behavior" of the research object and check the results. The main stages of the experiment: planning and construction (its purpose, type, means, methods of carrying out, etc.); control; interpretation of results. An experiment has two interrelated functions: experimental testing of hypotheses and theories, and the formation of new scientific concepts. Depending on these functions, experiments are distinguished: research (search), test (control), reproductive, isolating, etc. According to the nature of objects, physical, chemical, biological, social experiments are distinguished. An important experiment in modern science is a decisive experiment, the purpose of which is to refute one and confirm the other of two (or more) competing concepts. Experiential and experimental pedagogical work. If we are talking about the generalization of experience, then it is clear that scientific research directly follows from practice, follows it, contributing to the crystallization and growth of the new born in it. But such a relationship between science and practice is not the only possible one today.

In many cases, science is obliged to outstrip practice, even advanced, without breaking away, however, from its requests and requirements.

The method of making deliberate changes in the educational and educational process, designed to obtain an educational and educational effect, with their subsequent verification and evaluation, is experimental work.

Didactic experiment. An experiment in science is a change or reproduction of a phenomenon in order to study it in the most favorable conditions. A characteristic feature of the experiment is the planned human intervention in the studied phenomenon, the possibility of multiple reproduction of the studied phenomena under varying conditions. This method makes it possible to decompose integral pedagogical phenomena into their constituent elements. By changing (varying) the conditions in which these elements function, the experimenter is able to trace the development of individual sides and connections, more or less accurately record the results. The experiment serves to test the hypothesis, clarify individual conclusions of the theory (empirically verified consequences), establish and clarify the facts

A real experiment is preceded by a mental one. Replaying mentally various options for possible experiments, the researcher selects options that are subject to verification in a real experiment, and also obtains supposed, hypothetical results, with which the results obtained in the course of a real experiment are compared.

Stages experimental work:

- diagnostic stage(ascertaining). Revealing the real state of the investigated object. At the diagnostic stage, it is necessary to select the optimal diagnostic tools, a complex of various methods and techniques;

- formative stage experiment, suggests the formation of a new quality, realized by the researcher himself, as a result of practical testing, elements of the author's model, technology of the content of forms of methods of educational activity. This stage is consistent with the hypothesis of the study, on this stage it is necessary to present a phased implementation of the conditions indicated in the hypothesis.

- control (final) stage an experiment, within the framework of which the results of experimental experimental work are presented.

At this stage, a comparative analysis is presented at the beginning and end of the experiment. The positive dynamics of quantitative indicators according to certain criteria makes it possible to judge the qualitative changes within the framework of the experiment.

Comparison- a cognitive operation underlying judgments about the similarity or difference of objects. With the help of comparison, the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are revealed. Compare is to compare one thing with another in order to identify their relationship. The simplest and most important type of relationship identified by comparison is the relationship of identity and difference. This is the method with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and the particular in psychological and pedagogical phenomena are revealed, cognition of various stages of development of the same phenomenon or different coexisting ones is achieved. This method makes it possible to identify and compare the levels in the development of the studied phenomenon, the changes that have occurred, and to determine the development trends.

Measurement- the process, which consists in determining the quantitative values ​​of certain properties, sides of the studied object, phenomenon with the help of special technical devices. An important aspect of the measurement process is the methodology for its implementation. It is a set of techniques using certain principles and measuring instruments. In this case, the principles of measurement mean such phenomena that are taken as the basis for measurements.

There are several types of measurements. Based on the nature of the dependence of the measured value on time, measurements are divided into statistical and dynamic. In statistical measurements, the value that we measure remains constant over time (measurement of the size of bodies, constant pressure, etc.), dynamic measurements include those measurements during which the measured value changes over time (measurement of vibration, pulsating pressures, etc. .).

Well-developed instrumentation, a variety of methods and high performance measuring instruments contribute to the progress in scientific research.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance of the rational moment - concepts, theories, laws and other forms of "mental operations". The lack of direct practical interaction with objects determines the peculiarity that an object at a given level of scientific knowledge can be studied only indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in a real one. At this level, the most profound essential sides, connections, patterns inherent in the studied objects, phenomena are revealed through the processing of empirical knowledge data.

This processing is carried out using systems of abstractions of the "higher order" - such as concepts, inferences, laws, categories, principles, etc.

Scientific methods of theoretical research.

The theoretical level of scientific knowledge includes methods such as:

Formalization- construction of abstract mathematical models that reveal the essence of the studied processes of reality.

Axiomatic - building a theory based on axioms.

Hypothetical-deductive- creation of a system of deductively connected hypotheses from which statements are derived.

Climbing from the abstract to the concrete- displaying in its entirety the essence of the object under study by finding the main connection, its changes, opening new connections and establishing their interaction.

Systematization- arrangement of thoughts, objects and phenomena in a certain order (according to the target feature, scale, combination of properties).

Structural and functional analysis- study of the functioning of each element of the structure, the relationship between the general and particular functions of various organs or phenomena.

Formalization- display of meaningful knowledge in a step-by-step symbolic form. Formalization is based on the distinction between natural and artificial languages. Expressing thinking in natural language can be considered the first step in formalization. Natural languages ​​as a means of communication are characterized by polysemy, versatility, flexibility, imprecision, imagery, etc. It is an open, continuously changing system, constantly acquiring new meanings and meanings. Further deepening of formalization is associated with the construction of artificial (formalized) languages ​​intended for a more precise and rigorous expression of knowledge than natural language, in order to exclude the possibility of ambiguous understanding - which is characteristic of a natural language (the language of mathematics, logic, etc.). Symbolic languages ​​of mathematics and other exact sciences pursue not only the purpose of shortening the record, it can be done with the help of shorthand. The language of formulas of artificial language becomes an instrument of cognition. It plays the same role in theoretical knowledge as the microscope and telescope in empirical knowledge. It is the use of special symbols that makes it possible to eliminate the ambiguity of words in ordinary language. In formalized reasoning, each symbol is strictly unambiguous.

As a universal medium for communication and exchange of thoughts and information, language performs many functions. The main thing in the formalization process is that operations can be performed on the formulas of artificial languages, and new formulas and correlations can be obtained from them. Thus, operations with thoughts about objects are replaced by operations with signs and symbols. Formalization in this sense is a logical method of clarifying the content of thought by clarifying its logical form. But it has nothing to do with the absolutization of logical form in relation to content. Formalization, therefore, is a generalization of the forms of processes that are different in content, the abstraction of these forms from their content. It clarifies the content by identifying its form and can be carried out with varying degrees of completeness.

Axiomatic method- one of the methods of deductive construction of scientific theories, in which: a) a system of basic terms of science is formulated (for example, in Euclid's geometry, these are the concepts of a point, a straight line, an angle, a plane, etc.); b) from these terms, a set of axioms (postulates) is formed - statements that do not require proof and are the initial ones, from which all other statements of this theory are derived according to certain rules (for example, in Euclid's geometry: “only one straight line can be drawn through two points” ; "Whole is greater than part"); c) a system of inference rules is formulated, which makes it possible to transform the initial positions and move from one position to another, as well as introduce new terms (concepts) into the theory; d) the transformation of the postulates is carried out according to the rules that make it possible to obtain a set of provable statements - theorems from a limited number of axioms. Thus, for the derivation of theorems from axioms (and, in general, some formulas from others), special inference rules are formulated.

The axiomatic method is only one of the methods for constructing scientific knowledge. It has limited application, since it requires a high level of development of an axiomatizable content theory.

One of the most recognized and well-known classifications of methods of pedagogical research is the classification proposed by B.G. Ananyev. He divided all methods into four groups:

organizational;

empirical;

by the method of data processing;

interpretive.

TO organizational methods the scientist attributed:

comparative method as comparing different groups by age, activity, etc .;

longitudinal - as repeated examinations of the same persons over a long period of time;

complex - as a study of one object by representatives of different sciences.

TO empirical:

observational methods (observation and self-observation);

experiment (laboratory, field, natural, etc.);

psychodiagnostic method;

analysis of processes and products of activity (praxeometric methods);

modeling;

biographical method.

By the method of data processing:

methods of mathematical and statistical analysis of data and

methods of qualitative description.

To interpretive:

genetic (phylo- and ontogenetic) method;

structural method (classification, typology, etc.)

Ananiev described each of the methods in detail, but with all the thoroughness of his argumentation, as noted by V.N. Druzhinin in his book "Experimental Psychology", there are many unsolved problems: why did modeling turn out to be an empirical method? How are practical methods different from field experiment and instrumental observation? Why is the group of interpretive methods separated from the organizational ones?

It is advisable, by analogy with other sciences, to distinguish three classes of methods in educational psychology:

Empirical, in which outwardly real interaction of the subject and the object of research is carried out.

Theoretical when the subject interacts with the mental model of the object (more precisely, the subject of research).

Among the main theoretical methods of pedagogical research, V.V. Druzhinin highlighted:

- deductive(axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive), in other words - the ascent from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete. The result is theory, law, etc .;

- inductive- generalization of facts, an ascent from the particular to the general.

The result is an inductive hypothesis, regularity, classification, systematization; modeling - concretization of the method of analogies, "transduction", inference from the particular to the particular, when a simpler and / or more accessible object is taken as an analogue of a more complex object. The result is a model of an object, process, state.

Interpretive-descriptive, in which the subject "externally" interacts with the sign-symbolic representation of the object (graphs, tables, diagrams).

Finally, interpretive-descriptive methods are the "meeting place" of the results of the application of theoretical and experimental methods and the place of their interaction. The data of empirical research, on the one hand, are subjected to primary processing and presentation in accordance with the requirements imposed on the results by the organizing theory, model, and inductive hypothesis; on the other hand, this data is interpreted in terms of competing concepts in terms of hypothesis consistency with the results.

The product of interpretation is fact, empirical dependence and, ultimately, justification or refutation of a hypothesis.

All research methods are proposed to be subdivided into pedagogical and psychological. The methods of other sciences can also be distinguished: ascertaining and transforming, empirical and theoretical, qualitative and quantitative, particular and general, meaningful and formal, methods of description, explanation and forecast.

Each of these approaches carries a special meaning, although some of them are also rather arbitrary. Take, for example, the division of methods into pedagogical and methods of other sciences, that is, non-pedagogical. The methods attributed to the first group are, strictly speaking, either general scientific (for example, observation, experiment), or general methods of social sciences (for example, polling, questionnaire, assessment), well mastered by pedagogy. Non-pedagogical methods are methods of psychology, mathematics, cybernetics and other sciences used by pedagogy, but have not yet been so adapted by it and other sciences to acquire the status of pedagogical proper.

The plurality of classifications and classification characteristics of methods should not be considered a disadvantage. This is a reflection of the multidimensionality of methods, their different quality, manifested in various connections and relationships.

Depending on the aspect of consideration and specific tasks, the researcher can use different classifications of methods. In the actually used sets of research procedures, there is a movement from description to explanation and forecast, from statement to transformation, from empirical to theoretical methods. When using some classifications, the tendencies of transition from one group of methods to another turn out to be complex and ambiguous. There is, for example, a movement from general methods (analysis of experience) to particular ones (observation, modeling, etc.), and then again to general ones, from qualitative methods to quantitative ones and from them again to qualitative ones.

There is also another classification. All the various methods used in psychological and pedagogical research can be subdivided into general, general scientific and special.

General scientific methods of cognition- These are methods that are of a general scientific nature and are used in all or in a number of areas. These include experiment, mathematical methods, and a number of others.

General scientific methods used by various sciences are refracted in accordance with the specifics of each given science using these methods. They are closely related to a group of specific scientific methods that are used only in a certain area and do not go beyond it, and are used in each science in various combinations. Of great importance for solving most of the problems of pedagogy is the study of the actually emerging educational process, theoretical comprehension and processing of the creative findings of teachers and other practitioners, that is, generalization and promotion of advanced experience. The most common methods used to study experience include observation, conversation, questionnaires, familiarization with the products of student activities, and educational documentation. Observation is a purposeful perception of a pedagogical phenomenon, in the process of which the researcher receives specific factual material or data characterizing the features of the course of any phenomenon. In order for the attention of the researcher not to be scattered and fixed primarily on the aspects of the observed phenomenon that are of particular interest to him, an observation program is developed in advance, objects of observation are identified, and methods for registering certain moments are provided. Conversation it is used as an independent or as an additional research method in order to obtain the necessary clarifications about what was not clear enough during observation. The conversation is conducted according to a pre-planned plan with the highlighting of issues requiring clarification. The conversation is conducted in a free form without writing down the answers of the interlocutor, in contrast to interviewing - a variety of the conversation method transferred to pedagogy from sociology. When interviewing, the researcher adheres to pre-planned questions, asked in a certain sequence. In this case, the answers can be recorded openly. At questionnaires- the method of mass collection of material using questionnaires - answers to questions are written by those to whom the questionnaires are addressed (students, teachers, school workers, in some cases - parents). Questioning is used in order to obtain such data that the researcher cannot obtain in another way (for example, to identify the attitude of the respondents to the studied pedagogical phenomenon). The effectiveness of the conversation, interviewing, questioning largely depends on the content and form of the questions asked, tactful explanation of their purpose and purpose, in particular, it is recommended that the questions be feasible, unambiguous, concise, clear, objective, would not contain suggestions in a hidden form, would cause interest and desire to respond, etc. An important source of evidence is the study of pedagogical documentation that characterizes the educational process in a particular educational institution (progress and attendance journals, personal files and medical records of students, student diaries, meeting minutes, etc.) meetings, etc.). These documents reflect many objective data that help to establish a number of causal relationships, identify some dependencies (for example, between health and academic performance).

The study of written, graphic and creative works of students is a method that equips the researcher with data that reflect the individuality of each student, showing his attitude to work, the presence of certain abilities.

However, in order to judge the effectiveness of certain pedagogical influences or the value of methodological findings made by practitioners, and even more so in order to give any recommendations regarding the application of certain innovations in mass practice, the methods considered are not enough, since how they mainly reveal only purely external connections between the individual aspects of the studied pedagogical phenomenon. For a deeper penetration into these connections and dependencies, pedagogical experiment- a specially organized check of a particular method or reception of work in order to identify its effectiveness and efficiency. In contrast to the study of a real experience with the use of methods that register only the fact that an already existing experiment always presupposes the creation of a new experience in which the researcher plays an active role. The main condition for the use of a pedagogical experiment in the Soviet school is to conduct it without disrupting the normal course of the educational process, when there is sufficient reason to believe that the innovation being tested can contribute to an increase in the effectiveness of teaching and upbringing, or at least will not cause undesirable consequences. Such an experiment is called a natural experiment. If an experiment is carried out in order to verify a particular issue or if in order to obtain the necessary data it is necessary to ensure especially careful observation of individual students (sometimes with the use of special equipment), it is allowed to artificially isolate one or several students and place them in special conditions specially created by the researcher. ... In this case, a laboratory experiment is used, which is rarely used in pedagogical research.

A scientifically substantiated assumption about the possible effectiveness of one or another experimentally verified innovation is called a scientific hypothesis.

An essential part of the experiment is observation, carried out according to a specially developed program, as well as the collection of certain data, for which tests, questionnaires, and conversation are used. Recently, technical means are increasingly beginning to be used for these purposes: sound recording, filming, photographing at certain moments, observation with the help of a hidden television camera. The use of video tape recorders is promising, allowing you to record the observed phenomena, and then play them back for analysis.

The most important stage in working with these methods is the analysis and scientific interpretation of the collected data, the ability of the researcher to move from specific facts to theoretical generalizations.

In theoretical analysis, the researcher thinks about the causal relationship between the applied methods or methods of influence and the results obtained, and also looks for reasons explaining the appearance of some unexpected unexpected results, determines the conditions under which this or that phenomenon occurred, seeks to separate the accidental from the necessary, displays certain psychological - pedagogical laws.

Theoretical methods can also be used in the analysis of data collected from various scientific and pedagogical sources, in the understanding of the studied advanced experience.

Mathematical methods are also used in pedagogical research., helping not only to identify qualitative changes, but also to establish quantitative relationships between pedagogical phenomena.

The most common mathematical methods used in pedagogy are as follows.

registration- a method for identifying the presence of a certain quality in each member of the group and the general calculation of the number of those who have this quality or not (for example, the number of successful and unsuccessful people who attended classes without missing and allowed absences, etc.).

Ranging- (or the method of rank assessment) assumes the arrangement of the collected data in a certain sequence, usually in decreasing or increasing order of any indicators and, accordingly, determining the place in this row of each of the subjects (for example, compiling a list of students depending on the number of students admitted in the control work errors, the number of missed classes, etc.).

Scaling as a quantitative research method makes it possible to introduce digital indicators into the assessment of certain aspects of pedagogical phenomena. For this purpose, the subjects are asked questions, answering which they must indicate the degree or form of assessment, selected from among these assessments, numbered in a certain order (for example, a question about playing sports with a choice of answers: a) I am fond of, b) I exercise regularly, c) I do it irregularly, d) I don’t do any kind of sports).

Correlation of the obtained results with the norm (for the given indicators) involves the determination of deviations from the norm and correlating these deviations with the permissible intervals (for example, in programmed teaching, 85-90% of correct answers are often considered the norm; if there are fewer correct answers, this means that the program is too difficult , if it is more, it means that it is too light).

The definition of the average values ​​of the indicators obtained is also applied - the arithmetic mean (for example, the average number of errors for the test work identified in two grades), the median, defined as an indicator of the middle of the row (for example, if there are fifteen students in the group, this will be an assessment of the results of the eighth student in the list , in which all students are ranked according to their grade).

In the analysis and mathematical processing of mass material, statistical methods are used, which include calculating average values, as well as calculating the degrees of dispersion around these values ​​- variance, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, etc.

Consider the characteristics of empirical research.

To methods of empirical research should include: study of literature, documents and results of activities, observation, questioning, assessment (method of experts or competent judges), testing. The more general methods of this level include generalization of pedagogical experience, experimental pedagogical work, experiment. They are essentially complex techniques that include specific methods that are related in a certain way.

Literature study, documents and results of activities. The study of literature serves as a method of acquaintance with the facts, history and the current state of problems, a way of creating initial ideas, an initial concept of the subject, detecting "blank spots" and ambiguities in the development of a question.

The study of literature and documentary materials continues throughout the study. The accumulated facts induce to think over and evaluate the content of the studied sources in a new way, stimulate interest in issues that were not previously paid sufficient attention.

A solid documentary base of the study is an important condition for its objectivity and depth

Observation. A very widespread method used both independently and as an integral part of more complex methods. Observation consists in the direct perception of phenomena with the help of the senses or their indirect perception through descriptions by other people who directly observed them.

Observation is based on perception as a mental process, but this does not exhaust observation as a research method. Observation can be aimed at studying delayed learning outcomes, at studying changes in an object over a period of time. In this case, the results of perception of phenomena at different times are compared, analyzed, compared, and only after that the results of observation are determined. When organizing observation, its objects must be identified in advance, goals set, and an observation plan drawn up. The object of observation is most often the very process of teacher and student activity, the course and results of which are judged by words, actions, deeds, and the results of assignments. The purpose of observation determines the predominant focus on certain aspects of activity, on certain connections and relationships (the level and dynamics of interest in the subject, ways of mutual assistance of students in collective work, the ratio of informative and developmental learning functions, etc.). Planning helps to highlight the sequence of observation, the order and way of recording its results. The types of observations can be distinguished according to various characteristics. On the basis of temporary organization, continuous and discrete observation are distinguished, in terms of volume - broad and highly specialized, aimed at identifying individual aspects of the phenomenon or individual objects (monographic observation of individual students).

Survey... This method is used in two main forms: in the form of an oral survey of an interview and in the form of a written survey - a questionnaire. Each of these forms has its own strengths and weaknesses.

The survey reflects subjective opinions and assessments. Often the respondents guess what is required of them, and willingly or unwillingly tune in to the required answer. The survey method should be considered as a means of collecting primary material that is subject to rechecking by other methods. The survey is always built on the basis of expectations based on a certain understanding of the nature and structure of the studied phenomena, as well as ideas about the attitudes and assessments of the respondents. First of all, the task arises of identifying the objective content in subjective and often non-coinciding answers, identifying the leading objective tendencies in them, the reasons for the discrepancies in assessments. Then the problem of comparing the expected and the received arises and is solved, which can serve as a basis for correcting or changing the initial ideas about the subject.

Evaluation(method of competent judges). In essence, this is a combination of indirect observation and questioning, associated with the involvement of the most competent people in the assessment of the studied phenomena, whose opinions, complementing and cross-checking each other, allow an objective assessment of the studied. This method is very economical. Its use requires a number of conditions. First of all, this is a careful selection of experts - people who know well the area being assessed, the object under study and are capable of an objective and unbiased assessment.

Study and generalization of pedagogical experience. Scientific study and generalization of pedagogical experience serves various research purposes; identifying the existing level of functioning of the pedagogical process, bottlenecks and conflicts arising in practice, studying the effectiveness and availability of scientific recommendations, identifying elements of a new, rational, emerging in the everyday creative search of advanced teachers. Thus, the object of study can be mass experience (to identify leading trends), negative experience (to identify characteristic shortcomings and errors), but of particular importance is the study of advanced experience, in the process of which valuable grains of the new are revealed, generalized, and become the property of science and practice. found in mass practice: original techniques and their combinations, interesting methodological systems (techniques).

Naturally, the choice of methods is largely determined by the level at which the work is carried out (empirical or theoretical) by the nature of the research (methodological, theoretical applied) and the content of its final and intermediate tasks.

You can point out a number of typical mistakes when choosing methods:

a stereotyped approach to the choice of a method, its stencil use without taking into account specific tasks and research conditions; universalization of certain methods or techniques, for example, questionnaire survey and sociometry;

ignoring or insufficient use of theoretical methods, especially idealization, the ascent from the abstract to the concrete;

the inability of individual methods to compose a holistic methodology that optimally provides a solution to the problems of scientific research.

Any method itself is a semi-finished product, a workpiece that needs to be modified, concretized in relation to the tasks, subject, and specifically to the conditions of search work.

Finally, you need to think about such a combination of research methods that they successfully complement each other, revealing the subject of research more fully and deeper, so that it is possible to double-check the results obtained by one method using another. For example, it is useful to clarify, deepen, verify the results of preliminary observations and conversations with students by analyzing the results of tests or the behavior of students in specially created situations.

The foregoing allows us to formulate some criteria for the correct choice of the research method:

1. Adequacy to the object, subject, general objectives of the study, as well. accumulated material.

2. Compliance with modern principles of scientific research.

H. Scientific prospect, that is, a reasonable assumption that the chosen method will give new and reliable results.

4. Compliance with the logical structure (stage) of the study.

5. Perhaps a more complete focus on the development of the personality of trainees, because the research method in many cases becomes a method of education and upbringing, that is, "an instrument of touching the personality."

6. Interrelation and interdependence with other methods in a single methodological system.

All the constituent elements of the methodology and methodology, in general, must be checked for compliance with the research objectives, sufficient evidence, full compliance with the principles of pedagogical research.

Classification of methods of scientific and pedagogical research

The various research methods can be divided into four groups.

Traditional (empirical) we will name the methods inherited by modern pedagogy from the researchers who stood at the origins of pedagogical science.

Observation- the most accessible and widespread method of studying pedagogical practice. Scientific observation is understood as a specially organized perception of the investigated object, process or phenomenon in natural conditions. The main distinguishing features of scientific observation from everyday life are: the definition of the problem, the selection of the object, the development of the observation scheme; mandatory recording of results; processing of the received data. To increase the effectiveness of observation, it must be long-term, systematic, versatile, objective and massive. There are several types of observation: direct and indirect; open and closed; longitudinal (longitudinal) and retrospective (facing the past).

In the process of scientific and pedagogical research, they study school records characterizing the educational process.

Exploring student products- homework and classwork, essays, reports, reports, the results of aesthetic and technical creativity. Individual characteristics, inclinations and interests of students, attitude to work and their duties, the level of development of diligence, diligence and other qualities, motives of activity - this is just a small list of educational aspects in which this method can be successfully applied.

Three well-known varieties are used in pedagogy survey methods: conversation, questioning, interviewing. Conversation- dialogue between the researcher and the subject according to a pre-developed program. TO general rules the use of the conversation includes: the choice of competent respondents, the rationale and communication of the research motives that correspond to the interests of the subjects, the formulation of the variations of the questions. The method of conversation is close to the method interview... Here the researcher, as it were, sets a topic for clarifying the point of view and assessments of the subject on the issue under study. Interviewing rules include creating conditions conducive to the sincerity of the subjects. Questionnaire how a written survey is more productive, documentary, flexible in terms of the possibilities of receiving and processing information. There are several types of questionnaires. The contact questionnaire is carried out during the distribution, filling out and collection of the completed questionnaires by the researcher during his direct communication with the subjects. Correspondence questionnaires are organized by means of correspondent connections. Questionnaires with instructions are sent by mail, returned in the same way to the address of the research organization. Press questioning is carried out through a questionnaire posted in the newspaper. After filling out such questionnaires by readers, the editorial office operates with the obtained data in accordance with the goals of the scientific or practical design of the survey.

Pedagogical experiment belong to the main research methods in pedagogy. In a generalized sense, it is defined as an empirical hypothesis test. An experiment is essentially a strictly controlled pedagogical observation, with the only difference that the experimenter observes a process that he himself purposefully and systematically carries out. A pedagogical experiment requires the substantiation of a working hypothesis, the development of the question under study, the drawing up of a detailed plan for the conduct, strict adherence to the planned plan, accurate recording of the results, and the formulation of final conclusions. The reliability of the experimental conclusions directly depends on the observance of the experimental conditions. All factors other than those tested must be carefully balanced. Depending on the goal, they are distinguished: the ascertaining experiment, in which the existing pedagogical phenomena are studied; a transforming or formative experiment, in the process of which new pedagogical phenomena are constructed.

Theoretical methods include: theoretical analysis- identification and consideration of individual sides, signs, features, properties of pedagogical phenomena ; study of literature ; modeling - building models of pedagogical phenomena and processes, and others. Theoretical research methods make it possible to clarify, expand and systematize scientific facts, explain and predict phenomena, establish relationships between various concepts and hypotheses, highlight the most significant and secondary ones among them.