Outline of the speech workshop "The visual possibilities of the Russian language". The expressive possibilities of the phonetics of the Russian language. Learning to analyze the phonetic organization of speech

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Lexical and stylistic possibilities of the language. Linguists distinguish a number of linguistic layers in vocabulary, but for fiction, it is enough to stylistically highlight three sections: neutral, lowered and sublime vocabulary. The use of words from the last two groups gives the work a pathetic (for example, Pushkin's "Prophet"), or mundane sounding (for example, Chekhov's story "Vanka"). However, with the help of the use of sublime vocabulary, a pre-calculated comic effect can be achieved when sublime words are used ironically or when they do not correspond to the situation and context. A special effect is produced by the use of sublime and reduced vocabulary in the event that a particular word is included in the synonymous row in the language: the word used in the text is, as it were, set off by a neutral synonym. So, in Pushkin's "Prophet" instead of the neutral "eyes", "lips", "look", "listen", the corresponding sublime synonyms "apple", "mouth", "see", "listen" are used; and in Chekhov's story "Vanka" instead of the neutral "face", the reduced synonyms "muzzle", "mug" are used.

For literary analysis, it is essential to identify in the work of such lexical layers as archaisms, historicisms and neologisms.

Histories- these are the words that have fallen out of common use, because the corresponding concepts have been lost: wagon, postmaster, caftan, etc. Historicisms in fiction are used to recreate the historical flavor of the era.

Archaisms- obsolete words, ousted from the living modern language by synonyms: "right hand" - right hand, "shuytsa" - left, "brow" - forehead, etc. Most of the archaisms refers to the sublime vocabulary and, therefore, performs all of its functions, but is also used to recreate the historical flavor of the era.

Neologisms- words used for the first time or recently entered the national language. It is necessary to strictly distinguish between common linguistic neologisms (for example, cash out, customs clearance, consensus, conversion, etc.) and author's. The first ones arise because a new phenomenon has appeared in the life of society, requiring designation for itself. General linguistic neologisms are indifferent to the stylistics of a literary text and do not carry any aesthetic expressiveness. The author's neologism arises precisely because of the need to find a more expressive and apt name for a thing or phenomenon - it does not matter, old or new (Turgenev's neologism is "nihilist" (from the Latin "mihil" - nothing); Mayakovsky's neologism "little , just nascent love)).

Interesting use in fiction barbarism- words of foreign origin that have not yet assimilated into Russian. In the simplest case, they denote phenomena and concepts that are absent in Russian cultural life, for example, lunch, fiesta, impeachment, etc. Sometimes barbarism becomes the basis of the image.

Of the other linguistic means used in fiction, not common words should also be noted - dialectisms, professional vocabulary, jargon, etc. These words are used mainly in the speech of the characters, complementing their speech characteristics. Dialect words sometimes used in narrative speech to create a "local flavor".

Syntactic expressiveness - this is one of the most specific literary and expressive artistic means... Unlike other types of written speech (scientific, business, etc.), literary speech is potentially sounding speech. Therefore, a literary text cannot simply be skimmed over with the eyes, fixing the meaning; it must be at least mentally heard - without this, a lot is lost: some side of the meaning can be lost (most often in such cases, the emotional tonality escapes), the idea of artistic originality is depleted, and the pleasure of reading many works of art when reading only with the eyes in decreases in many ways, or even disappears altogether. That is why syntax is so important in a work of art: it embodies, objectifies living intonation the sounding word. It is not without reason that many writers strove for the musicality of their phrases. The manner of constructing a phrase often becomes a stylistic feature by which it is easy to identify a writer even in a small passage of text.

In addition to the individual syntactic techniques used by writers, there is a set of so-called syntactic figures- stable methods of syntactic construction of one or another part of the text. All of them have the function of increasing the expressiveness of the text and enhancing the emotional impact on the reader. The most important syntactic figures are:

Inversion- changing the usual order of words and phrases that make up a sentence; it is usually used to highlight one or another element of a sentence or to give a sentence a special meaning: "The doorman by an arrow He flew up the marble steps" (A. Pushkin).

Gradation- consistent forcing or, conversely, weakening the power of homogeneous expressive means of artistic speech "I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry ..." (S. Yesenin).

Anaphora- repetition of the initial parts (sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic constructions) of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases): “Crawl to me, dissemble, Threats from dilapidated books, Only memory you leave me, Only memory at the last moment ”(A. Akhmatova).

Epiphora- a figure opposite to anaphora - repetition of the final parts (sounds, words, grammatical forms) of adjacent segments of speech (lines, phrases).

Antithesis- comparison or opposition of contrasting concepts, provisions, images: “I Tsar, - I am slave, I AM worm, - I am the God! " (G. Derzhavin).

Asyndeton- sentence construction, in which homogeneous members or parts of a complex sentence are connected without the help of unions.

Multi-Union- such a construction of a sentence when all (or almost all) homogeneous members are connected with each other by the same union.

Rhetorical figures(Greek "rhetor" - orator) - stylistic turns, the purpose of which is to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Rhetorical figures include: rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical address.

A rhetorical question- an interrogative sentence used not in its own meaning. It is affirmative in content and does not require an answer, and its interrogative structure and intonation are used in order to attract attention, increase the emotional impact of the statement on the reader: "Don't I know him, this lie with which he is all saturated?" (L.N. Tolstoy).

Rhetorical exclamation- an exclamation sentence that conveys the author's emotions is used to enhance emotional perception: “What a summer, what a summer! Yes, it's just witchcraft ”(F. Tyutchev).

Rhetorical appeal- an appeal of a conditional nature, imparting the necessary intonation to the poetic speech: solemn, pathetic, ironic, etc.: "And you, arrogant descendants, The famous meanness of the glorified fathers ..." (M. Lermontov).

The concept of the trail. The ratio of objective and semantic in the path. The expressive possibilities of the tropes.

Tropes play the most important role in artistic speech - words and expressions used not in a direct, but in a figurative sense. The paths create in the work the so-called allegorical imagery, when the image arises from the rapprochement of one object or phenomenon with another. This is the most common function of all tropes - to reflect in the structure of an image a person's ability to think by analogy, to embody, in the words of the poet, "the convergence of distant things", thus emphasizing the unity and integrity of the world around us. At the same time, the artistic effect of the trope, as a rule, is the stronger, the further apart the close phenomena are from each other: such is, for example, Tyutchev's assimilation of lightning to "deaf and dumb demons." Using this path as an example, another function of allegorical imagery can be traced: to reveal the essence of this or that phenomenon, usually hidden, the potential poetic meaning contained in it. So, in our example, Tyutchev, with the help of a rather complex and unobvious path, makes the reader take a closer look at such an ordinary phenomenon as lightning, to see it from an unexpected side. For all the complexity of the path, it is very accurate: indeed, the reflections of lightning without thunder are naturally denoted by the epithet "deaf and dumb".

The path is addressed in literature in order to make a verbal definition of a phenomenon figurative. He explains the phenomenon figuratively, acting on the imagination.

The ratio of objective and semantic in the path.

A trail is a special type of meaning augmentation. Imaginary transfer: the compared phenomena only in the verbal series come into contact at the will of the speaker or writer. They remain in reality independent of each other. But in the consciousness of a person, their properties seem to be separated from the phenomena themselves and temporarily change places in the composition of the path.

Comparable phenomena, objects, persons, actions, events by means of tropes are compared, opposed, or partially identified according to individual characteristics or functions.

The expressive possibilities of the tropes.

Trails help to visualize some aspects of the phenomenon that has attracted attention.

Comparisons open up the possibility of a deeper knowledge of the phenomenon under study.

Trails are one of the means of artistic knowledge in literature.

The combination of words in the paths allows you to pay attention to the hidden, previously unnoticed properties and functions of the compared phenomena.

There is a large group of species and varieties of trails.

1) Comparison - transfer or replacement of values occurs in the most distinct form and the conventionality of temporary comparison is always emphasized. The comparison is based on words: like, like, like; it is worth removing this conditional link, and the comparison will disintegrate. ("Under the embankment, in an unmown ditch, Lies and looks like alive ..." Blok)

2) Parallelism - a comparison of two series of phenomena (often from the natural world and the world of human relations) leads to a tacitly implied and as if self-evident transfer of meanings. (“It’s not the wind that tends the branch, It’s not the oak tree that makes noise - That my heart groans, Like an autumn leaf trembles.” S. Stromilov).

3) Impersonation - the transfer of signs or functions of living beings to inanimate objects or phenomena (the image of an inanimate object as animate). ("What are you howling about, the night wind, What are you madly complaining about?" Tyutchev)

4) Antonomasia - transfer of meanings based on renaming or replacing one name with another, better known (mythological, historical or literary). (Our troikas are tireless, our strikers automedons - the name of Automedon (the driver of Achilles) is taken instead of the driver).

5) Epithet - an artistic definition that gives the expression imagery and emotionality, emphasizing one of the features of the object or one of the impressions about the object. ("Dissuaded the golden grove with a cheerful language."

6) Metaphor - the convergence of words by similarity or, on the contrary, by contrast. (the east is burning with a new dawn, I'm not sorry for you, the year of my spring)

7) Metonymy is a figurative meaning of a word based on replacing the direct name of an object with another by contiguity. (little head my dear (dear man))

8) Synecdoche - a type of metonymy, replacement of a generic name with a specific, plural, single, plural, generalized name ("all flags will visit us" (flags are merchant ships from different countries))

9) Hyperbole - exaggeration of the real properties of objects, phenomena, persons or events. (the sea is knee-deep, tears are flowing in a stream)

10) Litota - an understatement of the real properties of objects, phenomena, persons or events. (talin is no thicker than a bottle neck)

11) Euphemism - the replacement of rough definitions with softened expressions, however, such a replacement does not affect the essence of the phenomenon and even contributes to the emphasis, protrusion of the negative principle.

But you can print, for example,

12) Irony - the use of a word in a contrasting comparison, as a result of which it acquires the opposite meaning. ("Did you all sing? This is the case." Krylov)

A kind of irony is sarcasm (angry, bitter mockery).

(“For everything, for everything, I thank you:

For the secret torment of passions,

For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss,

For revenge of enemies and slander of friends. " Lermontov)

Comparison and metaphor in the system of expressive means of poetic language. Expressive trail possibilities

Comparison- transfer or replacement of values occurs in the most distinct form and the conventionality of temporal comparison is always emphasized. The comparison is based on words: like, like, like; it is worth removing this conditional link, and the comparison will disintegrate. ("Under the embankment, in an unmown ditch, Lies and looks like a living ..." Blok. "Show off, city of Petrov, and stand unshakably like Russia!"

Comparison consists in explaining any feature of one phenomenon by indicating its similarity with others, in which this feature is expressed with the greatest completeness and clarity.

A writer turns to comparison in the case when the similarity of a given phenomenon with another seems to the writer to be especially significant and important for the disclosure of the image.

By form comparison can be simple("There greenery is brighter than an emerald" Nekrasov) and deployed... A detailed comparison explains one or another feature of the depicted more multifaceted and is called epic.

Comparison can describe an object, emotions and feelings, phenomena and events.

“Like a snake, heavy, well-fed and dusty, Your train crawls from your armchairs onto the carpet” Blok.

"He's all like God's thunderstorm" Pushkin ("Poltava" about Peter).

Comparison is often viewed as a special syntactic form of expressing a metaphor,

when the latter is connected with the object expressed by it by means of the grammatical link "as", "as if", "as if", "exactly", etc., moreover, in the Russian language these conjunctions can be omitted, and the subject of comparison is expressed in the instrumental case. "The streams of my poems are running" (Blok) is a metaphor, according to "my poems are running like streams" or "my poems are running in streams" - there would be comparisons. Such a purely grammatical definition does not exhaust the nature of the comparison. First of all, not every comparison can be syntactically condensed into a metaphor. For example, "Nature amuses herself jokingly, like a carefree child" (Lermontov), or an antithetical comparison in "The Stone Guest": "The Spanish grandee, like a thief, Waits for the night and is afraid of the moon." In comparison, in addition, it is the separation of the compared objects that is essential, which is externally expressed by the particle, like the like; the distance between the objects being compared is felt, which is overcome in the metaphor. The metaphor, as it were, demonstrates identity, comparison-separateness. Therefore, the image used for comparison easily unfolds into a completely independent picture, often associated with only one feature with the object that caused the comparison.

The separateness of similar objects in comparison is especially clearly reflected in the special form of negative comparison characteristic of Russian and Serbian poetry. For example: “Not two clouds in the sky converged, but two daring knights converged”. Wed from Pushkin: "Not a flock of ravens flew On the pile of smoldering bones, - Beyond the Volga at night, at the fires of the Udalykh, a gang gathered."

Metaphor- convergence of words by similarity or, on the contrary, by contrast (the east is burning with a new dawn, I don’t feel sorry for you, the year of my spring), (a = b).

In the metaphor, one phenomenon is presented as completely likened to another, something similar to it: "What a lamp of reason has gone out!" Nekrasov. The metaphor as si comparison serves to accurately highlight the essential feature of the phenomenon. Metaphor sometimes creates a complete picture.

The metaphor makes it possible to make the image the most expressive, sharply individualized, for example: "Mumbling of your pearls" (mouth, teeth = pearls), "And the silence turns strangely pink" Blok; "Thin Strings of Rain" Gorky

Like other tropes (metonymy, synecdoche), metaphor is not only a phenomenon of poetic style, but also a general linguistic one. Many words in the language are formed metaphorically or are used metaphorically, and the figurative meaning of the word sooner or later displaces the meaning, the word is understood only in its figurative meaning, which is thereby no longer recognized as figurative, since its original direct meaning has already faded or even completely lost. This kind of metaphorical origin is revealed in separate, independent words (skates, window, affection, captivating, formidable, accuse), but even more often in phrases (mill wings, mountain ridge, pink dreams, hanging by a thread). On the contrary, a metaphor, as a phenomenon of style, should be spoken of in cases when both direct and figurative meaning is recognized or felt in a word or in a combination of words. Such poetic metaphors can be: firstly, the result of a new use of words, when a word used in ordinary speech in one sense or another is given a new, figurative meaning for it (for example, “And it will sink into a dark hole after a year”; “ ..stan mounted in a magnet "- Tyutchev); secondly, the result of renewal, revitalization of the tarnished metaphors of the language (for example, "You drink the magic poison of desires"; "Serpent of the heart

remorse "- Pushkin). The ratio of the two meanings in a poetic metaphor can be further different degrees. Either a direct or a figurative meaning can be highlighted, and the other, as it were, accompany it, or both meanings can be in a certain balance between themselves (Tyutchev's example of the latter: "A thunderstorm that rushes in like a cloud will confuse the azure sky"). In most cases, we find the poetic metaphor at the stage of obscuring the direct meaning with the figurative, while the direct meaning gives only an emotional coloring to the metaphor, which is its poetic effectiveness (for example, "The fire of desire burns in the blood" - Pushkin). But it is impossible to deny or even consider an exception and those cases when the direct meaning of a metaphor not only does not lose its figurative perceptibility, but is brought to the fore, the image retains clarity, becomes poetic reality, the metaphor is realized. (For example, "Life is running around the mouse" - Pushkin; "Her soul twitched with transparent blue ice" - Blok). Poetic metaphor is rarely limited to one word or phrase. Usually we meet a series of images, the combination of which gives the metaphor an emotional or visual sensibility.

Expressiveness

Allegory and symbol in the system of tropes, their expressive possibilities

Allegory- the expression of an abstract, abstract content of thought (concept, judgment) through a concrete (image), for example, the image of death in the form of a skeleton with a scythe, justice in the image of a woman with a blindfold and with scales in one hand and a sword in the other. Thus, in the allegory, a concrete image acquires an abstract meaning, is generalized, a concept is contemplated through the image.

In allegory, abstract concepts (virtue, conscience, truth), typical phenomena, characters, mythological characters are most often used - carriers of a certain allegorical content assigned to them (Minerva is the goddess of wisdom), allegory can also act as a number of images connected by a single plot ... At the same time, it is characterized by an unambiguous allegory and direct evaluativeness, enshrined in cultural tradition: its meaning can be interpreted quite straightforwardly in the ethical categories of "good" and "evil". Allegory is close to the symbol, and in certain cases coincides with it. However, the symbol is more polysemantic, meaningful and organically connected with the structure of the most often simple image. Often, in the process of cultural and historical development, the allegory lost its original meaning and needed a different interpretation, creating new semantic and artistic shades.

Symbol(from the Greek symbolon - sign, omen) - one of the types of tropes *. A symbol, like allegory and metaphor, forms its figurative meanings on the basis of what we feel - kinship, a connection between that object or phenomenon, which is indicated by some word in the language, and another object or phenomenon to which we transfer the same verbal designation. For example, "morning" as the beginning of daily activity can be compared with the beginning of human life. This is how the metaphor "morning of life" and the symbolic picture of the morning as the beginning life path:

“In the morning mist with wrong steps

I walked to the mysterious and wonderful shores. "

(Owner S. Soloviev)

However, the symbol is fundamentally different from both allegory and metaphor. First of all, the fact that it is endowed with a huge variety of meanings (in fact, innumerable), and all of them are potentially present in every symbolic image, as if "shining" through each other. So, in the lines from A. A. Blok's poem "You were strangely bright ...":

“I am your love caress

Illuminated - and I see dreams.

But, believe me, I consider it a fairy tale

An unprecedented sign of spring "

"Spring" is both the time of the year, and the birth of the first love, and the beginning of youth, and the coming " new life" and much more. Unlike allegory, the symbol is deeply emotional; to comprehend it, it is necessary to "get used" to the mood of the text. Finally, in allegory and in metaphor, the objective meaning of a word can be "erased": sometimes we simply do not notice it (for example, when Mars or Venus is mentioned in the literature of the 18th century, we often hardly remember the vividly depicted characters of ancient myths, but we only know that it is is about war and love. Mayakovsky's metaphor "days of the bull peg" draws the image of the variegated days of human life, and not the image of a bull with a spotted suit).

The main feature of symbols is that they, in their mass, appear not only in those texts (or even more so in parts of the text) where we find them. They have a history of tens of thousands of years, going back to ancient ideas about the world, to myths and rituals. Certain words ("morning", "winter", "grain", "earth", "blood", etc., etc.) have been imprinted in the memory of mankind since time immemorial as symbols. Such words are not only ambiguous: we intuitively sense their ability to be symbols. Later, these words are especially attracted by word painters, who include them in works, where they receive new meanings.

The depiction of feelings in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good, we say beautiful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; one might say I don’t like, but one can find stronger words: I hate, despise, disgust. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often, one neutral word has several expressive synonyms, differing in the degree of emotional stress (compare: unhappiness - grief - disaster - disaster, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - violent - furious). Vivid expression emphasizes words solemn (unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations, proclaim), poetic (azure, invisible, chant, incessant). A special expression distinguishes words playful (faithful, newly minted), ironic (grace, grace, don Juan) vaunted), familiar (not bad, cute, knock around, whisper). Expressive shades distinguish between words disapproving (pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), dismissive (painting, petty-mindedness), contemptuous (to scoff, groveling, toadying), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar (grabbing, happy ).

Expressive coloring in a word is layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and some words are dominated by expression, others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary.

By combining words similar in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include high-pitched, affectionate, partly humorous words; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc.

Metonymy, synecdoche, euphemism, paraphrase in the system of expressive means of poetic language. Expressive trail possibilities

Metonymy- a figurative meaning of a word based on replacing the direct name of an object with another by contiguity. (my dear little head (dear person)) Metonymy not only highlights the characteristic, but also creates a certain mood.

A kind of metonymy:

1) The name is not of the entire phenomenon or object as a whole, but of some attribute (the most important in this case): "And at the door - pea jackets, greatcoats, sheepskin coats" Mayakovsky about the storming of the Winter Palace by the revolutionaries.

2) Replacement of the name of the object itself with an indication of the material from which it is made: "porcelain and bronze on the table", "perfume in faceted crystal" Pushkin.

3) The name of the containing volume instead of what it contains: "frothy cups" Pushkin, "Well, eat another plate, my dear!" Krylov.

4) The designation of people (lil of the whole people) by the name of the place where they are or where the action takes place: "Russia was going to save Moscow" Akhmatov.

5) The use of the name of the creator instead of the title of the work, the subject: "I read Apuleius willingly, and I did not read Cicero" Pushkin.

6) The name instead of the very action of his instrument, means, end or results: "The pen breathes his love", "Judge us with the sword" Pushkin.

Synecdoche- a kind of metonymy, replacement of a generic name with a specific, plural, single, plural, generalized name: “And it was heard before dawn how the Frenchman was jubilant” Lermontov.

Euphemism- replacement of rough definitions with softened expressions, however, such a replacement does not affect the essence of the phenomenon and even contributes to the emphasis, protrusion of the negative principle.

(“Another abuse, of course, indecency.

You can't say: such and such a de-old man,

A goat with glasses, a shabby slanderer,

And angry and mean: all this will be a person.

But you can print, for example,

That Mr. Parnassian Old Believer

In his articles of nonsense, the orator,

Superbly sluggish, superbly boring,

Heavy and even stupid. " Pushkin.)

Euphemism(Greek ευφημισμός, softening of expression) is a linguistic and stylistic term denoting a replacement in speech of a direct expression, which for some reason seems to be harsh and undesirable, through an indirect, softened one. For example: "ordered to live long"; "In an interesting position"; "Ineffable" (pantaloons); “Where the king walks on foot” (a restroom, which in turn is a euphemism, if you like); "Places not so distant" (link); "Blonde" (typhus louse), etc. Many euphemisms of colloquial speech are associated with completely conditional and arbitrary designations of an object that arise in one or another close circle of persons or in special social dialects, developing, for example, in closed educational institutions, in a military environment, in gangs of thieves, among prisoners, etc.

A special kind of euphemism consists in the rearrangement of the sounds of a word, - for example, the name of a street in Moscow "Shvivaya Gorka" instead of the former "Lousy Gorka", - or in the substitution of individual sounds and syllables, as, for example, in French the expression of curses: „morbleu "Instead of" mort Dieu "," parbleu "instead of" par Dieu ", etc.

PERIPHRASE(Greek Περίφρασις, description) is a stylistic term denoting a descriptive expression of an object by any of its properties or attributes. For example: "King of beasts" instead of a lion; "Pea coat" instead of detective; "Stagirite" instead of Aristotle at the place of birth. Paraphrasing is especially often used when listing homogeneous objects in order to avoid uniformity in naming. So, in Pushkin's "sonnet", along with five direct names of the sonnet's poets - Dante, Petrarch, Camoens, Wordsworth, Delvig - two descriptive ones are given: "the creator of Macbeth" vm. Shakespeare and the "Lithuanian singer" vm. Mitskevich. A special type of periphraza is euphemism (see). This makes it possible to highlight the main specific traits subject, to express an attitude towards it.

Stylistic figures. Artistic possibilities of poetic syntax.

Stylistic figures - special turns of speech fixed by stylistics, used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of the statement. Sometimes paths are referred to stylistic figures, as well as unusual phrases, turns of speech that go beyond the linguistic norm.

1. Infinitive sentence when the predicate is expressed indefinite form a verb, for example: A queen to laugh and shrug her shoulders ... (A. Pushkin)

2. Ellipsis- incomplete sentences, where imagery is achieved by saving speech means in the absence of a sentence member, most often a predicate, for example: Lake in the middle of a river; on the right side there is a meadow behind the river and on the left side there is a meadow, and behind the meadow there is a hillock with old pines and a field. (G. Bocharov)

3. Parcelling- a stylistic technique, when a sentence is intonationally divided into segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences, one of which is incomplete or requires an obligatory context, for example: I will complain. To the Governor. (M. Gorky). Parceling must be distinguished from an error - speech failure, when the subject or predicate is torn (I will complain. I will.). Allows you to enhance the semantic and expressive shades of meanings.

4. Inversion- changing the direct (usual) order of words in a sentence to the opposite, in which the word occupies a not quite usual, and therefore a strong position, for example (the words on which the logical stress falls are highlighted): Aragva light he happily / Reached the green shores. (M. Lermontov) Compare the same sentence with the direct word order, where, together with the inversion, the rhythm of the verse is also eliminated: He happily reached the green shores of the bright Aragva. This is a means of giving speech special expressiveness.

5. Doubling- repetition of words as a stylistic device: Dreams, dreams, where is your sweetness? (A. Pushkin)

6. Anaphora, or monotony, is the repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of each sentence:

If you love, so without reason,

Kohl threaten, so in earnest,

If you swear, so in a rush,

Kohl chop, so from the shoulder!

(A. K. Tolstoy)

7. Epiphora, or ending, is the repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent sentences:

"There will be no us!" And the world at least something.

"The trace will disappear!" And the world at least something.

We were not there, but he shone and will be.

We will disappear - and the world at least what!

(Omar Khayyam)

Creates a special rhythmic and intonational pattern, places semantic accents.

8. Syntactic concurrency- repetition not of words, but of a syntactic model: Lancers with variegated badges, dragoons with ponytails ... (M. Lermontov)

9. Default- deliberate interruption of the utterance, conveying intermittency, agitation of speech. In the letter, the default is shown with ellipsis:

No; I wanted ... maybe you ... I thought

That it is time for the Baron to die.

(A. Pushkin) Awakens deep thoughts and feelings in the reader, requires co-creation from him.

10. A rhetorical question- an emotionally colored statement that has the meaning of affirmation or denial. A rhetorical question is often posed not in order to get an answer, but to draw the reader's attention to a particular phenomenon, for example: What is my Onegin? Half asleep he goes to bed from the ball. (A. Pushkin) They make speech expressive and sharp.

11. Rhetorical appeal(often with an exclamation), when the author emphatically refers to someone or something, thereby expressing his attitude:

Flowers, love, trees, idleness,

Fields! I am devoted to you in my soul.

(A. Pushkin) They make speech expressive and sharp.

12. Asyndeton consists in deliberately skipping unions with homogeneous members (hereinafter, the rows of homogeneous members themselves can be considered as a means of creating an image), which gives speech impetuosity and dynamism. For example, the lines from "Eugene Onegin" by A. Pushkin, where together with the Larins family we observe a kaleidoscopic change of pictures outside the carriage window:

They flash past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, gardens, orchards,

Merchants, hovels, peasants,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions at the gates

And flocks of jackdaws on the crosses.

13. Multi-Union when repeated unions serve as a logical and intonational emphasis on homogeneous members, for example:

The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded away, and went somewhere into infinity. (V. Korolenko)

14. Gradation- such an arrangement of homogeneous members, in which each subsequent one contains a reinforcing meaning, due to which the general impression produced by the entire group of words is enhanced.

A person in the process of reading, ignoring stylistic figures and guided only by punctuation marks, deprives himself of all the subtleties of poetry and, therefore, does not understand the depth of the work.

Stylistic figures are special syntactic constructions that serve to enhance the figurative and expressive function of speech.

Poetic syntax is a system of special means of constructing speech, contributing to the enhancement of its figurative expressiveness.

Possibilities:

This is a means of making speech especially expressive.

This makes it possible to highlight the main characteristic features of the subject, to express the attitude towards it.

They give expressiveness and sharpness to speech.

Conveys complex semantic nuances, a strong emotional impact on the reader.

Creates a special rhythmic and intonational pattern, places semantic accents.

Creates the impression of a movement of thought, deepening: it helps to establish associative connections, psychologically connect dissimilar concepts, emotional impact on the reader.

Awakens deep thoughts and feelings in the reader, requires co-creation from him.

Allows you to enhance the semantic and expressive shades of meanings.

Poetic and prosaic speech. Rhythm and meter. Rhythm factors. The concept of verse. Versification systems

There are two different quality systems of the artistic structure of speech: prosaic and poetic.

Poetic works are characterized by division in their speech into such comparable rhythmic units as poetic lines, the boundaries of which may coincide with syntactic units(phrases, syntagas) - in prose, these boundaries coincide, its rhythm is based on a special organization and internal ordering of syntactic units.

The basis of the organization of poetic speech is rhythm.

In the era of antiquity, verbal art made its way from mythological and divinely inspired poetry (whether epic or tragedy) to prose, which, however, was not yet artistic, but oratory and business (Demosthenes), philosophical (Plato and Aristotle), historical (Plutarch , Tacitus). Artistic prose was more common in folklore (parables, fables, fairy tales) and did not come to the fore in verbal art. She won the rights very slowly. Only in modern times did poetry and prose begin to coexist in the art of word “on equal terms,” and the latter is sometimes brought to the fore (such is, in particular, Russian literature of the 19th century, starting from the 30s).

There is an external, formal difference between poetry and prose, and there is an internal difference between them, in essence. The first is that verses are opposed to prose; the latter is that poetry is opposed to prose, as thinking and exposition to the rational, as thinking and figurative presentation, calculated not so much for mind and logic as for feeling and imagination. Hence it is clear that not all poetry is poetry and not every prose form of speech is internal prose. Once upon a time, even grammatical rules (for example, Latin exceptions) or arithmetic operations were stated in verses. On the other hand, we know "prose poems" and, in general, such works written in prose, which are pure poetry: it is enough to name the names of Gogol, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Chekhov. If we bear in mind the external difference just mentioned, then it will be interesting to point out that the word prose comes from the Latin prorsa, which in turn is an abbreviated proversa: oratio (speech) proversa meant for the Romans continuous speech, filling the entire page and freely rushing forward , while the verse occupies only a part of each line on the pages and, moreover, in the cycle of its rhythm constantly reverts back, back (in Latin - versus). It should be noted, however, that one can speak of the freedom of prose speech only conditionally: in fact, prose also has its own laws and requirements. Even if, in contrast to poetry (in the sense of poetry), fictional prose does not know rhyme and rhythmic regularity of the feet, nevertheless it must be musical, and it must please what Nietzsche called "the conscience of the ear." No wonder the same Nietzsche advised to work on two lines of prose as on a statue; he likened the writer to the sculptor.

Moving on to the more important - the inner difference between prose and poetry, let us pay attention to the fact that prose serves science and practice, while poetry satisfies our aesthetic needs. Here is a school example that clarifies this difference: a description of the Dnieper in a geography textbook and a description of the Dnieper by Gogol ("Wonderful Dnieper" ...). Prose needs abstractions, schemes, formulas, and it moves along the mainstream of logic; on the contrary, poetry requires pictures, and it transforms the content of the world into living colors, and words for it are carriers not of concepts, but of images. Prose talks, poetry draws. The prose is dry, the poetry is thrilled and thrilling. Prose analyzes, poetry synthesizes, that is, the first separates the phenomenon into its constituent elements, while the second takes the phenomenon in its integrity and unity. In this regard, poetry personifies, spiritualizes, gives life; prose, on the other hand, is sober prose, akin to a mechanistic worldview.

This perception of the world as a certain living creature and the corresponding way of depicting the latter are highly characteristic of poetry. In general, it is very important to assimilate to yourself that poetry is more than a style: it is a world outlook; the same must be said about prose. If poetry is divided - approximately and generally - into epic, lyric and drama, then in prose modern textbooks of the theory of literature distinguish between the following genera and types: narration (chronicle, history, memories, geography, characterization, obituary), description (travel, for example), reasoning (literary criticism, for example), oratorical speech; it goes without saying that this classification cannot be strictly maintained, does not exhaust the subject, and the listed genera and species are variously intertwined with each other. The same work may contain elements of both poetry and prose; and if penetration into the prose of poetry, internal poetry, is always desirable, then the opposite case has a cooling effect on us and causes aesthetic resentment and annoyance in the reader; we then convict the author of proseism.

Fiction is a system of figurative and expressive speech that preserves the disproportionate order of development of ordinary colloquial speech.

Poems are a figurative and expressive system of speech, based on the artistic use of the possibilities of rhythm in it.

Rhythm is a continuously uniform and clearly perceptible following in poetic speech of commensurate segments, which gives it special expressiveness.

The tempo and rhythm of the piece.

The greatest measure of rhythm differs, of course, in poetic speech. For a very long time, people have noticed that words, folded into harmonious poetic lines, are easier to remember, easier to perceive, and most importantly, they become beautiful and acquire a special effect on the listener. The last two functions remain the leading ones for speech in poetry in our time: to give an artistic text aesthetic perfection and to enhance the emotional impact on the reader. In poetry, rhythm is achieved due to the uniform alternation of speech elements - poetic lines, pauses, stressed and unstressed syllables, etc.

So, a verse is a rhythmically ordered, rhythmically organized speech. However, there is a rhythm of its own, sometimes more, sometimes less perceptible, in prose, although there it is not subject to the strict rhythmic canon - meter. Rhythm in prose is achieved primarily due to the approximate proportionality of the columns, which is associated with the intonation-syntactic structure of the text, as well as various kinds of rhythmic repetitions.

The tempo organization of the literary text is no less important than the rhythmic one; however, in practice, these two sides of artistic syntax are so inseparable from each other that sometimes they talk about tempo rhythm works. Temporhythm has as its function, first of all, the creation of a certain emotional atmosphere in the work. The fact is that different types of tempo and rhythmic organization directly and directly embody certain emotional states and have the ability to necessarily evoke precisely these emotions in the minds of the reader, listener, viewer; in arts such as music or dance, this pattern is very clear.

Starozelenovskaya secondary school - MOU

Plan - synopsis

Russian language lesson in grade 11

« Fundspictorial and expressive ... "

Preparedteacher of Russian language and literature

Starozelenovskaya SOSH-MOU

Khabibullina Ravilya Ravilovna

2015

Russian language lesson in grade 11 "Fine and expressive ..."

Goals:

to repeat the figurative and expressive means of the language (terms, usage);

train the ability to find paths and stylistic figures in the text, prepare students for completing the exam assignment;

to carry out aesthetic education, the need to speak correctly and beautifully.

Lesson type : combined

Lesson form: group, frontal.

Lesson methods : partly search, research.

Lesson equipment : computer, presentation, texts of works for analysis, cards

Lesson steps:

During the classes : 1 Communication of the topic and objectives of the lesson.

Classical music sounds. Introductory speech of the teacher. “In the beginning was the Word,” says the ancient wise book.Since ancient times, the word has had great power. It was then that the belief in the magical power of the word arose. "The word can do everything!" - said the ancients.

The abyss of stars is full,

There is no number of stars, the bottom of the abyss

What picture appeared before you?

Each word, in addition to its main meaning, is connected by numerous threads with a number of images and emotions that easily emerge when evaluating a word from the point of view of its expressiveness.

In order to have an emotional impact and for aesthetic purposes, in order to create imagery and expressiveness, word masters use means and techniques of expressiveness of speech. You and I, language learners, must remember that the word is the basis of our spirituality, our culture.

What is wealth, beauty, strength,expressiveness of language ?!

The answer to this question can be the words of K. Paustovsky ..., which we will take as an epigraph to the lesson.

Each word contains an abyss of images.
K. Paustovsky

- How can we define the topic of our lesson?

- What tasks do we face?

We write the topic and the epigraph on the board and in the notebook.

Questions:

What groups are the pictorial and expressive means of the language divided into? (Tropes and stylistic figures).

I invite you to remember which means are tropes and which are figures of speech. There are 2 plates attached to the board: paths and figures of speech. On the teacher's desk there are tablets with the names of the language means.(Students come out, who will quickly and more correctly correlate these names with the main group, you can attach them to double-sided tape. You can go out in a chain. The result is such a construction on the board)

- What are trails?

“A trope is a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense. The trope is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to us close in any respect ”(Rosenthal DE, p. 198).

- What are the trails used for?

The paths help to vividly and figuratively depict objects and phenomena of reality, they are associated associatively with those sensations that we receive with the help of the senses. These funds can be calledpictorial.

Question:What is the role of stylistic figures? ("They enhance the expressiveness of the utterance by a special organization of the linguistic material, primarily by a special syntax" (DE Rosenthal, p. 107). These means can be calledexpressive.

2. Terminological dictation : I am reading the definition, you write down the name of the visual medium in a column.

1. Identical construction of neighboring sentences. (Syntactic concurrency ).

2.On the one hand, a speech error is an unjustified use of the same root words (an incident happened), on the other hand, a means of emotional impact to emphasize a phenomenon, a signTautology.

3 reverse word order(Inversion)

4. Artistic understatement(Litotes)

5. An expression containing a different, hidden meaning, an allegory(Allegory). 6. Comparison of two objects or phenomena on the basis of a common feature for them(Comparison).

7. Words intended to denote special concepts of science, technology, etc. (Terms).

8. Hidden mockery(Irony).

9. It is in the context that these words are opposite; outside the context, this opposition is lost (Contextual antonyms).

10. Opposition, reception of contrast(Antithesis

If you successfully completed the task, then by the initial letters you should get the wordSTYLISM .

3 . Conversation

- Stylistics as a science, as an independent branch, appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. But a person has long been interested not only in WHAT he says, but also in HOW he speaks.

STYLISM-a section of linguistics that studies the principles of choice and methods of organizing linguistic units into a single semantic whole or text

Teaching about the expressive means of language.

The totality of artistic means of the language of a literary work, writer, literary school, era.

- What does the style have to do with the listed terms? ( One of the aspects of stylistics is the study of the expressive means of the language).

II . Development of the ability to find visual and expressive means in texts.

1. Indicate what means of expression is "hidden" in the sentence. The material can be divided into 2 options with 15 sentences each.

He soon quarreled with the girl. And that's why. (G. Uspensky).Parcelling.

Working with texts (in groups). Texts printed

Teacher. Each literary text represents one or another information and always pursues certain practical goals. By communicating something, the writer simultaneously influences the reader. The strength of the impact depends on the degree of artistry of the work, its pictorial and expressive texture. Our perception of the text depends on the degree of its understanding from the degree of its perception.

Title the text. What picture appeared before you?

What tropes and stylistic figures did the author use to express it?

Representatives of the group go to the screen on which the text is displayed, read expressively, report the results of the work.

1 group. The sun had not yet risen, but half of the sky was already bathed in a pale pink light. The transparent and calm river lay like a huge mirror in the green frame of wet meadows. Light pink lines furrowed her slightly smooth surface... A. Kuprin.

Group 2. From the very early morning the sky is clear; the morning dawn is not ablaze with fire: it spreads with a gentle blush. The sun is not fiery, not incandescent, as during a sultry drought, not dim - crimson, as before a storm, but light and welcoming-radiant ... The upper, thin layer of the stretched cloud will sparkle with snakes; their shine is like the shine of forged silver. I.S. Turgenev

Control: completing the task in USE format

And now I propose to complete the task in the Unified State Exam format, as it will look like on the exam (material from the work "Texts of Solzhenitsyn's Works in Russian Lessons")

Duckling

1) A small yellow duckling, funnyly falling to the wet grass with a whitish belly and almost falling from its thin legs, runs in front of me and squeals: “Where is my mother? Where are my all? "

2) And he has not a mother at all, but a chicken: they put duck eggs on her, she sat them among her own, warmed everyone equally. 3) Now, before the bad weather, their house - an inverted basket without a bottom, was carried under a shed, covered with burlap. 4) Everything is there, but this one is lost. 5) Come on, little one, come to me in the palm of your hand.

6) And what does the soul keep here? 7) Does not weigh at all, black eyes - like beads, legs - passerine, squeeze it a little - and no. 8) And meanwhile - warm. 9) And his beak is pale pink, like manicured, already razlapist. 10) And the legs are already webbed, and yellow in their own suit, and the fluffy porches are already protruding. 11) And even from the brothers he distinguished himself in character.

12) And we - we will fly to Venus soon. 13) Now, if we take it all together, we will plow the whole world in twenty minutes.

14) But never! - never, with all our atomic power, we will not compose in a flask, and even if we give feathers and bones - we will not mount this weightless, pathetic yellow duckling ...

(after A.I.Solzhenitsyn)

20. In what sentence is the author's irony expressed over the desire of his contemporaries to subjugate the world of space?

21. What type of speech is presented in sentences 6-11 of the text?

all types of speech

description and narration

description

reasoning

22. In which sentence are the author's neologisms used?

Read the excerpt from the review based on the text you read. This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some of the terms used in the review are missing. Insert the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list in place of the gaps. If you do not know which number from the list should be in place of the gap, write the number 0.

"In the miniature" Duckling "to the beauty, harmony and uniqueness of nature embodied in the little duckling, Solzhenitsyn opposes the world modern technology, which he perceives as something ugly and soulless, deforming a person's sense of beauty. To confirm this basic idea of the text, the author resorts to _____. Creating the image of a duckling, the author uses ___ ("lukewarm", "abdomen", "beads", "beak", etc.), ____ ("weightless pathetic yellow duckling", "black eyes", "passerine legs", etc.) ... Solzhenitsyn's dislike formodern technology is also transmitted through ____ (proposal 13) ".

List of terms:

Lesson summary . So, the arsenal of pictorial and expressive means of the Russian language is extremely rich and varied. The paths and stylistic figures are designed to decorate speech, to make it precise, clear, expressive, such, from the caress of which the head can spin.

Conclusion: Working on today's topic, we once again became convinced of the richness and diversity of the resources of the Russian language, its figurative means. You need to learn from the great artists of the word to use this property rationally and economically, making your speech figurative and beautiful.

Lesson summary: In six months, you will become high school graduates. I would like toknowledge of the means of expression was for you not only the need to pass an exam in the Russian language, but also the need to speak brightly, figuratively; so that you use in your speech the entire arsenal of pictorial and expressive words, this "golden reserve" of our language. “There are no such sounds, colors, images and thoughts - complex and simple - for which there would not be an exact expression in our language,” said K.G. Paustovsky.

I want to wish you all to enter universities, the cradle of knowledge, and become diligent workers of science within the walls of the best universities in the country. It will bear good fruit

Comment on my parting word to you from the point of view of the use of pictorial and expressive means.I want to wish you all to enroll incradle of knowledge , (metaphor, paraphrase) and become diligentworkers of science (metaphor) in the walls (metonymy) the best universities in the country. itwill bear good fruit (metaphor).

Reflection

Now let's turn to the reflective screen. I suggest that you select the phrase that you now want to continue.

Today I found out ...

It was interesting…

I realized that ...

I managed…

Now I can…

I wanted…

I was able to ...

I want to know more about ...

Homework :

Students are given blanks with presentation topics:

Metaphor is the queen of the paths.

Huge hyperbole and tiny litota.

The epithet is great.

Everything is rhetorical: an appeal, an exclamation, a question.

Gradation descents and ascents.

Anaphora and epiphora are stylistic antonyms.

Comparison possibilities.

Choose a topic for your research presentation.

I would like the knowledge of the means of expression to be for you not only the need to pass an exam in the Russian language, but also the need to speak brightly, figuratively.

Grammatical means of expressiveness are less significant and less noticeable in comparison with lexical and phraseological ones. Grammatical forms, phrases and sentences correlate with words and, to one degree or another, depend on them. Therefore, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology is brought to the fore, while the expressive possibilities of grammar are relegated to the background.

The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use of grammatical forms.

Various expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of the number of nouns instead of another. So, the forms of the singular number of personal nouns in the collective sense vividly convey the generalized plurality. This use of singular forms is accompanied by the appearance of additional shades, most often negative ones: “Moscow, burnt by fire, Frenchman given away ”(M. Lermontov). Expressiveness is characteristic of plural forms, collective names used metaphorically to refer not to a specific person, but to a typified phenomenon: “We all look into napoleons"(A. Pushkin); " Molchalins bliss in the world ”(A. Griboyedov).

Pronouns are characterized by the richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, the pronouns “some”, “someone”, “some”, used when naming a person, add a connotation to speech (some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).

Uncertainty of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, a comic. Here is an example from V. Pikul's novel "I Have the Honor": “With his wife there was an Astrakhan herring. I think - why would a lady with our stinking herring drag around Europe? He cut her belly (not a lady, of course, but a herring), so from there, dear mother, diamond after diamond - and fell like cockroaches. "

Special expressive shades are created by opposing the pronouns we - you, our - yours while emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.: “Millions of you. Us - darkness and darkness and darkness. Try it, fight with us! " (A. Blok); “We stand against the society, whose interests you are ordered to defend, like irreconcilable enemies of it and yours, and reconciliation between us is impossible until we win ... you, - nothing prevents us from being internally free, - the poisons with which you poison us are weaker than those antidotes that you - unwillingly - pour into our consciousness ”(M. Gorky).

Verb categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, the ability to use figuratively have great expressive capabilities. The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use synonymous replacements of some forms of tense, type, mood or personal forms of the verb with others in speech. The additional semantic shades that appear at the same time increase the expression of expression. So, to indicate the action of the interlocutor, the third person singular forms can be used, which gives the statement a dismissive connotation (He is still arguing!), first person plural (“Well, how are we resting?” - meaning ‘resting, resting”) with a touch of sympathy or special interest, an infinitive with a particle with a touch of desirability (You should have a little rest; you should visit him).

When used in the meaning of the future, the past tense of the perfect form expresses a particular categorical judgment or the need to convince the interlocutor of the inevitability of an action: “- Listen, let me go! Drop off somewhere! I disappeared completely ”(M. Gorky).

There are many expressive forms of moods ("May there always be sunshine!"; "Long live world peace!"). Additional semantic and emotionally expressive shades appear when some forms of mood are used in the meaning of others. For example, the subjunctive mood in the meaning of the imperative has a tinge of courteous, careful wish (You would go to your brother), the indicative mood in the meaning of the imperative expresses an order that does not allow objection, refusal (You will call tomorrow!); the infinitive in the meaning of the imperative mood expresses categoricality (Stop the arms race!; Prohibit testing of atomic weapons!). Strengthening the expression of the verb in the imperative mood is facilitated by particles yes, let, well, -ka, etc.: “- Come on, is my friend sweet. // Reason in simplicity ”(A. Tvardovsky); Shut up !; So, say!

The expressive possibilities of syntax are primarily associated with the use of stylistic figures (turns of speech, syntactic constructions): anaphores, epiphores, antitheses, gradations, inversions, parallelism, ellipsis, silence, non-union, multi-union, etc.

The expressive possibilities of syntactic constructions, as a rule, are closely related to the elephants that fill them, with their semantics and stylistic coloring. Thus, the stylistic figure of an antithesis is often created by using antonymic words; the lexical basis of the antithesis is antonymy, and the syntactic basis is the parallelism of the construction. Anaphora and epiphora are based on lexical repetitions:

In the silence and, in the forest sutemi I think about life under a pine tree. That pine tree is clumsy and old, That pine is harsh and wise, That pine is sad and calm, Quieter than the streams in the big, big river, Like a mother, It gently strokes my cheek with a coniferous palm.

(V. Fedorov)

Stringing synonymous words can lead to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (sometimes weakens) the meaning of the previous one: “She was there, in a hostile world that he did not recognize, despised, hated "(Yu. Bondarev).

The expressiveness of speech depends not only on the semantic volume and stylistic coloring of the word, but also on the methods and principles of their combination. Here, for example, how and what words V. Vysotsky connects in phrases:

Gullible Death was wrapped around his finger,

She hesitated, forgetting to wave the scythe. The bullets were no longer catching up with us and were lagging behind. Will we be able to wash ourselves not with blood, but with dew ?!

Death is gullible; death was “wrapped around the finger” (that is, deceived); the bullets did not catch up, but lagged behind; wash with dew and wash with blood.

The search for fresh, well-aimed combinations, expansion, renewal of lexical compatibility are characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic speech.

Ever since the times Ancient Greece a special semantic type of phrases is known - oxymoron (Greek oxy moron - witty-stupid), i.e. "a stylistic figure, consisting in the combination of two concepts, contradicting each other, logically excluding one another" (hot snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, sonorous silence). Oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, to emphasize their complexity and inconsistency. For example:

Encompassed

Sweet despair

The pain of delight

In your eyes,

Open wide

Like goodbye

I saw myself

(V. Fedorov)

An oxymoron is widely used in fiction and in journalism as a bright, catchy headline, the meaning of which is usually revealed by the content of the whole text. So, in the newspaper "Soviet Sport" a report from the World Team Chess Championship is entitled "The Original Template". Original template the attempt of the grandmaster Polugaevsky to use more extensively the typical positions that arose on the board, which were analyzed in detail in the textbooks on chess theory, and the knowledge of which makes it easier for an athlete to find a way out, is named.

According to the apt definition of A.S. Pushkin, "language is inexhaustible in the combination of words", therefore, its expressive possibilities are inexhaustible. Renewal of connections between words leads to renewal of verbal meanings. In some cases, this manifests itself in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others - in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings. Such a shift can be created not by near, but by distant connections of words, separate parts text or all text as a whole. This is how, for example, the poem by A.S. Pushkin "I loved you", which is a model of expressiveness of speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have a bright expressive coloring and semantic connotations, and only one periphery (« Love is still, perhaps, // In my soul it has not completely died out ”). The poet achieves extraordinary expressiveness due to the ways of combining words within the entire poem, organizing its speech structure as a whole and individual words as elements of this structure.

The syntax of the Russian language, in addition, has a lot of emotionally and expressively colored constructions. Thus, infinitive sentences with coloration of colloquiality are characterized by various modal-expressive meanings: “You will not see such battles” (M. Lermontov); "Do not hide, // Do not hide amazement // Neither furnaces, nor craftsmen" (V. Fedorov).

An emotional and evaluative attitude to the content of a statement can be expressed with the help of exclamation sentences: "How beautiful life seems to me when I meet in it restless, caring, enthusiastic, seeking, generous people!" (V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: "Fate has come to pass!" (M. Lermontov), segmented and parcelled structures: "Winter is so long, so endless"; "Tal, where we will live, a real forest, not like our grove ... With mushrooms, with berries" (V. Panova) and others.

It revives the story, allows you to convey the emotional and expressive features of the author's speech, to show more clearly his inner state, direct and improperly direct speech attitude to the subject of the message. It is more emotional, expressive and convincing than indirect.

They give liveliness to the statement, emphasize the dynamism of the presentation of definite personal sentences; the nominative are distinguished by a large semantic capacity and expressiveness; various emotions are expressed by vocal and other sentences: “People of the whole earth // Let the alarm sound: // Let us protect the world! // Let's stand as one, - // Let's say: we won't let // reignite the war ”(A. Zharov); “Eh, roads! // Dust and fog, // Cold, alarm // Yes, steppe weeds ”(L. Oshanin); - “Vera, tell Aksinya to open the gate for us! (Pause.) Vera! Don't be lazy, get up, dear! " (A. Chekhov).

The expressive possibilities of syntactic (as well as other) means of the language are actualized due to various stylistic methods of using them in speech. Interrogative sentences, for example, are a means of expressiveness, if they not only contain an urge to obtain information, but also express a variety of emotionally expressive shades ("Isn't this morning?"; "So won't you come?"; "This nasty rain again?" ); arouse the addressee's interest in the message, make him think about the question posed, emphasize its importance: “How far will you sail on the wave of the crisis?”; “Was the postman's bag heavy?”; "Does warmth shine on us?"; "Will the CIS Strengthen its Position?" (these are some of the headings of the articles). Rhetorical questions, widely used in public speaking: “Don't we have overflowing creativity? Don't we have a smart, rich, flexible, luxurious language, richer and more flexible than any of the European languages?

Why should we creak boringly with feathers when our ideas, thoughts, images should thunder like the golden trumpet of the new world? " (A.N. Tolstoy).

In the practice of oratory, a special method of using interrogative sentences has been developed - a question-and-answer course (the speaker asks questions and answers them himself): “How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for a feat, but they were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily ”(S. Aleksievich).

A question-and-answer course dialogizes a monologue speech, makes the addressee the speaker's interlocutor, activates his attention. Dialogue revives the narrative, gives it expressiveness.

Thus, the expressiveness of speech can be created by the most common, stylistically unmarked linguistic units due to their skillful, most appropriate use in the context in accordance with the content of the utterance, its functional and stylistic coloring, general expressive direction and purpose.

In a certain situation, deviations from the norms of the literary language are deliberately used as means of speech expressiveness: the use in one context of units of different stylistic colors, the collision of semantically incompatible units, abnormal formations of grammatical forms, abnormal construction of sentences, etc. This use is based on a conscious choice of linguistic means based on deep knowledge of the language.

Speech expressiveness can be achieved only with the correct ratio of the main aspects of speech - logical, psychological (emotional) and linguistic, which is determined by the content of the statement and the author's goal setting.

Therefore, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology is brought to the fore, while the expressive possibilities of grammar are relegated to the background.

The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use of grammatical forms.

Various expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of the number of nouns instead of another. So, the forms of the singular number of personal nouns in the collective sense vividly convey the generalized plurality. This use of singular forms is accompanied by the appearance of additional shades, most often negative ones: Moscow, burnt by a fire, has been given away (M. Lermontov). Expressiveness is characteristic of plural forms, collective names used metaphorically to denote not a specific person, but a typed phenomenon: We all look at the field (A. Pushkin); Young people are blissful in the world (A. Griboyedov). Usual or occasional use of the plural of nouns singularia tantum can serve as a means of expressing disdain: I decided to run for courses, study electricity, and all sorts of things! (V. Veresaev).

Pronouns are characterized by the richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, the pronouns some, some, some, used when naming a person, bring a shade of dismissiveness into speech (some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).

Uncertainty of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, a comic. Here is an example from V. Pikul's novel "I Have the Honor": With his wife there was an Astrakhan herring. I think ¾ why would a lady with our stinking herring drag around Europe? He cut her belly (not a lady, of course, but a herring), so from there, dear mother, diamond after diamond fell like cockroaches.

Special expressive shades are created by contrasting the pronouns we ¾ you, our ¾ your while emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.: Millions of you. We are darkness and darkness and darkness. Try it, fight with us! (A. Blok); We stand against the society, whose interests you are ordered to defend, like its irreconcilable enemies and yours, and reconciliation between us is impossible until we win ... You cannot give up the oppression of prejudices and habits, ¾ the oppression that spiritually killed you , ¾ nothing prevents us from being internally free, ¾ the poisons with which you poison us are weaker than the antidotes that you ¾ unwillingly ¾ pour into our consciousness (M. Gorky).

Verb categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, the ability to use figuratively have great expressive capabilities. The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use synonymous replacements of some forms of tense, type, mood or personal forms of the verb with others in speech. The additional semantic shades that appear at the same time increase the expression of expression. So, to indicate the actions of the interlocutor, the forms of the 3rd person singular can be used, which gives the statement a dismissive connotation (He is still arguing!), 1st person plural (Well, how do we rest? ¾ in the meaning of 'resting, resting') with a tinge of sympathy or special interest, an infinitive with a particle would be with a tinge of desirability (you should rest a little; you should visit him).

The past tense of the perfect form, when used in the meaning of the future, expresses a special categorical judgment or the need to convince the interlocutor of the inevitability of an action: ¾ Listen, let me go! Drop off somewhere! I disappeared completely (M. Gorky).

There are many expressive forms of moods (May there always be sun!; Long live world peace!). Additional semantic and emotionally expressive shades appear when some forms of mood are used in the meaning of others. For example, the subjunctive mood in the meaning of the imperative has a tinge of a courteous, careful wish (You would go to your brother) ", the indicative mood in the meaning of the imperative expresses an order that does not allow objection, refusal (Call tomorrow!); The infinitive in the meaning of the imperative expresses categorical (Stop an arms race! A. Tvardovsky); Yes, shut up!; Well, tell me!

The expressive possibilities of syntactic constructions, as a rule, are closely related to the elephants that fill them, with their semantics and stylistic coloring. Thus, the stylistic figure of the antithesis, as noted above, is often created by using antonymic words; the lexical basis of the antithesis is antonymy, and the syntactic basis is the parallelism of the construction. Anaphora and epiphora are based on lexical repetitions:

In the silence and, in the forest sutemi

Thinking about life under a pine tree.

That pine tree is clumsy and old,

That pine tree is harsh and wise,

That pine tree is sad and calm

Quieter than the jets in the big, big river,

Like a mother

Me with a coniferous palm

Gently strokes the cheek.

(V. Fedorov)

Stringing synonymous words can lead to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (sometimes weakens) the meaning of the previous one: She [the German] was there, in a hostile world, which he did not know, al, nenavidel (Yu. Bondarev).

The expressiveness of speech depends not only on the semantic volume and stylistic coloring of the word, but also on the methods and principles of their combination. See, for example, how and what words V. Vysotsky connects in phrases:

Gullible Death was wrapped around a finger, She hesitated, forgetting to wave a scythe.

The bullets were no longer catching up with us and were lagging behind.

Will we be able to wash ourselves not with blood, but with dew ?!

Death ¾ gullible; death was wrapped around the finger (i.e. deceived); the bullets did not catch up, but lagged behind; wash with dew and wash with blood.

The search for fresh, well-aimed combinations, expansion, renewal of lexical compatibility are characteristic primarily of artistic and publicistic speech: She is a young woman, Greek, suspected of love of freedom (from newspapers). The phrase suspected of love of freedom gives a clear idea of the environment in which the love of freedom is considered a highly suspicious quality.

Since the time of Ancient Greece, a special semantic type of phrases has been known ¾ oxymoron (Greek.

Oxymoron ¾ witty-stupid), i.e. "a stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts, contradicting each other, logically excluding one another" (hot snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, sonorous silence). Oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, to emphasize their complexity and inconsistency. For example:

(V. Fedorov)

An oxymoron is widely used in fiction and in journalism as a bright, catchy headline, the meaning of which is usually revealed by the content of the whole text. So, in the newspaper "Soviet Sport" a report from the World Team Chess Championship is entitled "The Original Template". An original template is the attempt by Grandmaster Polugaevsky to use more extensively the typical positions that have arisen on the board, which have been analyzed in detail in the textbooks on chess theory, and the knowledge of which makes it easier for an athlete to find a way out.

According to the apt definition of A.S. Pushkin, "language is inexhaustible in the combination of words", therefore, its expressive possibilities are inexhaustible. Renewal of connections between words leads to renewal of verbal meanings. In some cases, this manifests itself in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others, in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings. Such a shift can be created not by near, but by distant word connections, individual parts of the text, or the entire text as a whole. This is how, for example, the poem by A.S. Pushkin's "I loved you", which is a model of expressiveness of speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have a bright expressive coloring and semantic connotations, and only one periphery (Love is still, perhaps, // In my soul it has not completely faded away). The poet achieves extraordinary expressiveness due to the ways of combining words within the entire poem, organizing its speech structure as a whole and individual words as elements of this structure.

The syntax of the Russian language, in addition, has a lot of emotionally and expressively colored constructions. Thus, infinitive sentences with coloration of colloquiality are characterized by various modal-expressive meanings: You will not see such battles (M. Lermontov); Do not hide, // Do not hide amazement // Neither furnaces nor craftsmen (V. Fedorov).

An emotional and evaluative attitude to the content of a statement can be expressed with the help of exclamation sentences: How beautiful life seems to me when I meet in it restless, caring, enthusiastic, seeking, generous people! (V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: Fate has come true! (M. Lermontov), segmented and parceled structures: Winter ¾ it is so long, so endless; Tal, where we will live, a real forest, not like our grove ... With mushrooms, berries (V. Panova), etc.

It revives the narrative, allows you to convey the emotional and expressive features of the author's speech, to show more clearly his inner state, direct and improperly direct speech attitude to the subject of the message. It is more emotional, expressive and convincing than indirect. For example, let us compare an excerpt from the story of A.P. Chekhov's "Dear Lessons" in the first and second editions:

They give liveliness to the statement, emphasize the dynamism of the presentation of definite personal sentences; the nominative are distinguished by a large semantic capacity and expressiveness; various emotions express vocal and other sentences: People of the whole earth // Let the alarm sound: // Let's protect the world! // Let's stand as one, ¾ // Let's say: we won't give // Re-ignite the war (A. Zharov); Eh, roads! // Dust and fog, // Cold, alarm // Yes, steppe weeds (L. Oshanin); ¾ Vera, tell Aksinya to open the gate for us! (Pause.) Vera! Don't be lazy, get up, dear! (A. Chekhov).

The expressive possibilities of syntactic (as well as other) means of the language are actualized due to various stylistic methods of using them in speech. Interrogative sentences, for example, are a means of expressiveness, if they not only contain an urge to receive information, but also express a variety of emotionally expressive shades (Isn't this morning?; So won't you come ?; This nasty rain again?); arouse the addressee's interest in the message, make them think about the question posed, emphasize its importance: How far will you sail on the wave of the crisis ?; Is the postman's bag heavy ?; Does warmth shine on us ?; Will the CIS strengthen its position? (these are some of the headings of the articles). Rhetorical questions widely used in public speeches contribute to attracting the addressee's attention and increasing the impact of speech on his feelings: Do we not have creativity that is overflowing? Don't we have a smart, rich, flexible, luxurious language, richer and more flexible than any of the European languages?

Why should we squeak boringly with feathers when our ideas, thoughts, images should thunder like the golden trumpet of the new world "? (AN Tolstoy).

In the practice of oratory, a special method of using interrogative sentences has been developed - a question-and-answer course (the speaker asks questions and answers them himself): How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for a feat, but they were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily (S. Aleksievich).

A question-and-answer course dialogizes a monologue speech, makes the addressee the speaker's interlocutor, activates his attention. Dialogue revives the narrative, gives it expressiveness.

In a certain situation, deviations from the norms of the literary language are deliberately used as means of speech expressiveness: the use of units of different stylistic colors in one context, the collision of semantically incompatible units, abnormal formations of grammatical forms, abnormal construction of sentences, etc. This use is based on a conscious choice of linguistic means based on deep knowledge of the language.

The lexical system of the language is complex and multifaceted. The possibilities of constant updating in speech of the principles, methods, signs of combining words taken from various groups within the whole text, hide in themselves the possibility of updating speech expressiveness, its types.

The expressive possibilities of the word are supported and strengthened by the associativity of the reader's imaginative thinking, which largely depends on his previous life experience and the psychological characteristics of the work of thought and consciousness in general.

Expressiveness of speech are such features of its structure that support the attention and interest of the listener (reader). The complete typology of expressiveness has not been developed by linguistics, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades. But we can quite definitely speak about the conditions under which the speech will be expressive:

The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.
The second is his interest in what he is talking about or writing about.
The third is a good knowledge of the expressive capabilities of the language.
The fourth is the systematic deliberate training of speech skills.

The main source of enhancement of expressiveness is vocabulary, which gives a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymy, synecdoches, hyperbole, litoty, personification, paraphrase, allegory, irony. Great opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of speech, the syntax has, the so-called stylistic figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.

The lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called in linguistics trails (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, the paths are used by authors of works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.

These pictorial and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, help him to find the individuality of style. However, there are also common language paths that arose as the author's, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: "time heals", "battle for the harvest", "war thunderstorm", "conscience spoke", "curl up", "like two drops water ".

In them, the direct meaning of words is erased, and sometimes completely lost. Their use in speech does not give rise to in our imagination artistic image... The trope can develop into a speech stamp if it is used too often. Compare the expressions that determine the value of resources using the figurative meaning of the word "gold" - "white gold" (cotton), "black gold" (oil), "soft gold" (furs), etc.

Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - appendix - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and can be expressed by a full and short adjective, noun and adverb: "Do I wander along noisy streets, enter a crowded temple ..." (A.S. Pushkin)

"She is alarming, like leaves, she, like a gusli, has many strings ..." (A.K. Tolstoy) "Frost-voivode patrols his possessions ..." (N. Nekrasov) "Irresistibly, uniquely everything flew far and past ... "(S. Yesenin). Epithets are classified as follows:

1) constant (typical for oral folk art) - "good fellow", "red girl", "green grass", "blue sea", "dense forest" "mother of damp earth";

2) pictorial (visually draw objects and actions, give
the opportunity to see them as the author sees them) - “a crowd of a variegated fast cat” (V. Mayakovsky), “the grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);

3) emotional (convey feelings, the mood of the author) - "The evening has raised black eyebrows ..." - "A blue fire swept around ...", "Uncomfortable, liquid moonliness ..." (S. Yesenin), "... and the young city ascended magnificently, proudly ”(A. Pushkin).

Comparison is a juxtaposition (parallelism) or opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects according to one or several common features: “Your mind is deep, like the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains "(V. Bryusov) -" It is not the wind that rages over the forest, the streams did not run from the mountains - the frost of the voivode is patrolling his possessions "(N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity, pictoriality. This trope, unlike others, is always two-term - it names both compared or opposed objects. In comparison, three necessary existing elements are distinguished - the object of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity. For example, in M. Lermontov's line "Whiter than snow mountains, clouds go to the west ..."

1) a comparative turnover with the conjunctions "like", "like", "like", "like", "exactly", "what ... that": "Crazy years, extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover," But, like wine - the sorrow of bygone days In my soul, the older, the stronger ”(A. Pushkin);

2) the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: "there is no beast worse than a cat";

3) a noun in the instrumental case: "A white drift rushing along the ground like a snake ..." (S. Marshak);

“My dear hands - a pair of swans - dive in the gold of my hair ...” (S. Yesenin);

“I was looking at her with might and main, as children look ...” (V. Vysotsky);

“I will never forget this battle, the air is saturated with death.

And stars were falling from the firmament in a silent rain ”(V. Vysotsky).

“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds ...” (V. Vysotsky).

"Like an eternal flame, the peak sparkles in the daytime emerald ice... "(V. Vysotsky).

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora) means the transfer of the name of an object (action, quality) based on similarity, this is a phrase that has the semantics of hidden comparison. If the epithet ~ is not a word in a dictionary, but a word in speech, then the more true is the statement: a metaphor ~ is not a word in a dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can drive a nail into the wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head ~ a metaphor arises, rude, but expressive.

The verbal actualization of the semantics of the metaphor is explained by the need for such guessing. And the more effort a metaphor requires in order for consciousness to turn a hidden comparison into an open one, the more expressive, obviously, the metaphor itself. Unlike a two-term comparison, which lists both what is being compared and what is being compared to, metaphor contains only the second component. This gives imagery and compactness to the path. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of traits: color, shape, size, purpose.

The metaphor may be simple, expanded and lexical (dead, erased, petrified). A simple metaphor is built on the convergence of objects and phenomena according to one common feature - "the dawn is burning", "the sound of waves", "the sunset of life."

A detailed metaphor is built on various associations of similarity: “Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong embrace and throws them from a sweep in wild rage on the cliffs, breaking emerald masses into dust and splashes” (M. Gorky).

Lexical metaphor - a word in which the initial transfer is no longer perceived - "steel pen", "clock hand", " doorhandle", "paper". Close to metaphor is metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them. Communication can be

1) between the object and the material from which the object was made: “Amber was smoking in his mouth” (A. Pushkin);

3) between the action and the instrument of this action: "Pen by his revenge
breathes ”(A. Tolstoy);

5) between the place and the people who are on this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).

A kind of metonymy is synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-understanding) - the transfer of meaning from one to another based on the quantitative relationship between them:

1) a part instead of a whole: "All flags will visit us" (A. Pushkin); 2) a generic name instead of a specific one: "Well, why, sit down, shine!" (V. Mayakovsky);

3) a specific name instead of a generic one: “Take care of a penny more than anything else” (N. Gogol);

4) singular instead of the plural: “And it was heard before dawn how the Frenchman was jubilant” (M. Lermontov);

5) the plural instead of the only one: "To him neither the bird flies, nor the beast" (A. Pushkin).

The essence of personification consists in attributing to inanimate objects and abstract concepts the qualities of living beings - "I will whistle, and obediently, timidly a bloody villainy will creep in to me, and will lick my hand, and look into my eyes, in them my sign, reading my will" (A. Pushkin); "And the heart is ready to run from the chest to the top ..." (V. Vysotsky).

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic

a figure consisting of a figurative exaggeration - “they were sweeping a stack above the clouds”, “wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov), “At one hundred and forty suns, the sunset was blazing” (V. Mayakovsky), “The whole world in the palm of your hand ...” (In Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperboles can be copyright and general language. In everyday speech, we often use such general linguistic hyperboles - I saw (heard) a hundred times, "scared to death", "strangle in my arms", "dance until you drop," "repeat twenty times," etc. The stylistic device opposite to hyperbole is litota (from the Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness) is a stylistic figure, consisting in an understated understatement, humiliation, reticence: "a boy with a finger", "... You need to bow your little bit of grass ..." (N. Nekrasov).

Litota is a type of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).

Meiosis is a trope of understating

intensity of properties (signs) of objects, phenomena, processes: "wow", "okay", "decent", "tolerant" (about good), "unimportant", "hardly suitable", "leaving much to be desired" (about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating variant of the ethically unacceptable direct name: cf. "Old woman" - "a woman of Balzac's age", "not of the first youth"; "Ugly man" - "it is difficult to call a handsome man." Hyperbole and litota characterize the deviation in one direction or another of the quantitative assessment of the subject and can be combined in speech, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song "Dunya the thin-weaver" it is sung that "Dunya spun a kudelyushka for three hours, strained three threads," and these threads are "thinner than a knee, thicker than a log." In addition to the author's, there are also general language litoty - "the cat cried", "close at hand", "not to see beyond your own nose."

A periphrase (from the Greek periphrasis - from around and I say) is called

a descriptive expression used instead of one or another word ("writing these lines" instead of "I"), or a trope consisting in replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features ("the king of beasts is a lion" , "Foggy Albion" - England, "Venice of the North" - St. Petersburg, "the sun of Russian poetry" - A. Pushkin).

Allegory (from the Greek. Allegoria - allegory) consists in an allegorical image of an abstract concept with the help of a concrete, life image. Allegories appear in literature in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions and folklore. The main source of allegories is tales of animals, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf is anger and greed, the ram is stupidity, the lion is power, the snake is wisdom, etc. From ancient times to our time, allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. In Russian classical literature, allegories were used by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A.Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky.

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) is a trope consisting in the use of a name or a whole statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one, this is a transfer by contrast, by polarity. Most often, irony is used in statements containing a positive assessment, which the speaker (writer) rejects. "Split, smart, are you delirious, head?" - asks the hero of one of the fables I.A. Krylov at the Donkey. Praise in the form of censure can also be ironic (see the story of AP Chekhov "Chameleon", characterization of the dog).

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora -ana again + phoros bearing) -unononality, repetition of sounds, morphemes, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures at the beginning of parallel syntactic periods or lines of poetry.

Bridges demolished by a thunderstorm, A coffin from a washed-out cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ... Black-eyed girl, Black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes).

It was not in vain that the winds blew, It was not in vain that there was a thunderstorm. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)

I swear by the odd and the couple, I swear by the sword and the right battle. (A.S. Pushkin).